Face of Abuse

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: Psychological abuse or emotional abuse refers to the humiliation or intimidation of another person, but is also used to refer to the long-term effects of emotional shock. Psychological abuse can take the form of physical intimidation, controlling through scare tactics and oppression. It is often associated with situations of power imbalance, such perhaps as the situations of abusive relationships and child abuse; however, it can also take place on larger scales, such as Group psychological abuse, racial oppression and bigotry. A more "mild" case might be that of workplace abuse. Workplace abuse is a large cause of workplace-related stress, which in turn is a strong cause of illness, both physical and mental. When a child is emotionally abused, some may not even reconize it, and make it seem like everyday behavoir. When in fact, it can have serious long term effects on the child at hand. There need not be an agitator for psychological abuse to occur — one can undergo self-abuse, as in the case of someone who is a depressive, or self-mutilation. Any situation in which the repeated and extreme impact of a situation affects a person's emotional and rational thinking, in such a way as to adversely impact their later lives, could be termed as psychological abuse at some level. Psychotherapy and psychiatric methods can help some people overcome the negative effects of abuse, given time and a healing environment. [I have taken some of the above words and found their definitions]Humiliation of Others Humiliation of one person by another (humiliator) is often used as a way of asserting power over others, and is a common form of oppression or abuse. However, it can also be consensual, as part of an agreement with a lover of erotic humiliation. In either of these cases, it may be motivated by sadism. In addition, many punishments are deliberately designed to be humiliating, e.g. tarring and feathering, pillory, mark of infamy(stigma). Physical abuse is, in addition to the physical damage, also humiliating, as is intimidation. Rape may, in addition to being humiliating, cause physical damage, including being infected by a sexually transmitted disease, and also the physical abuse of making an unwilling woman pregnant.Intimidation is generally used in the meaning of criminal threatening. Intimidation is a criminal attempt to threaten by speaking or acting in a dominating manner, often with the goal of making a person or people do what the intimidator wants. Threatening behaviours are supposed to be a maladaptive outgrowth of normal competitive urge for interrelational dominance generally seen in animals. In case of human beings, threatening behaviours may be more completely modulated by social forces, or may be more mercilessly plotted by individual egotism. Like all behavioral traits it exists in greater or lesser manifestation in each individual person over time, but may be a more significant "compensatory behavior" for some as opposed to others. Behavioral theorists often see threatening behaviours as a consequence of being threatened by others, including parents, authority figures, playmates and siblings. Intimidation may be employed consciously or unconsciously, and a percentage of people who employ it consciously may do so as the result of selfishly rationalized notions of its appropriation, utility or self-empowerment. Intimidation may be manifested in such manner as physical contacts, glowering countenance, emotional manipulation, verbal abuse, purposeful embarrassment and/or actual physical assault. Criminal threatening is the crime of intentionally or knowingly putting another person in fear of imminent bodily injury. There is no legal definition in English law as to what behaviour constitutes "Intimidation", so it is up to the courts to decide on a case by case basis. However, if somebody threatens violence against somebody, then this may be a criminal offence. In most U.S. jurisdictions, the crime remains a misdemeanor unless a deadly weapon is involved or actual violence is committed, in which case it is usually considered a felony. Criminal threatening can be the result of verbal threats of violence, physical conduct (such as hand gestures or raised fists), actual physical contact, or even simply the placing of an object or graffiti on the property of another person with the purpose of coercing or terrorizing. Criminal threatening is also defined by arson, vandalism, the delivery of noxious biological or chemical substances (or any substance that appears to be a toxic substance), or any other crime against the property of another person with the purpose of coercing or terrorizing any person in reckless disregard for causing fear, terror or inconvenience; "Terrorizing" generally means to cause alarm, fright, or dread in another person or inducing apprehension of violence from a hostile or threatening event, person or object. An emotion is a "complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral, and physiological elements, by which the individual attempts to deal with a personally significant matter of event." It arises without conscious effort and is either positive or negative in its valence. Other closely related terms are: · affect, a synonym for emotion · affect display, external display of emotion · disposition, referring to a durable differentiating characteristic of a person, a tendency to react to situations with a certain emotion · feeling, which usually refers to the subjective, phenomenological aspect of emotion · mood, which refers to an emotional state of duration intermediate between an emotion and a disposition Relational aggression is psychological (social/emotional) aggression between people in relationships. Relational aggression is a form of aggression where the group is used as a weapon to assault others and others' relationships. It uses lies, secrets, betrayals and other dishonest tactics to destroy or damage the relationships and social standing of others in the group. Also known as covert bullying, social aggression , "female bullying", family bullying or serial bullying, it is a covert form of aggression, used by both men and women in relationships. It is less well-known than physical forms of aggression and therefore much more difficult to detect. Often, the victim may not know the abuser is lying or gossiping about the victim, and the abuser may even pretend to befriend the victim. Although modern understanding of relational aggression arose from the study of cliques of girls in school, and despite the fact that the term "female bullying" is often used synonymously with "relational aggression", relational aggression is seen at times in women and men of all ages in spousal, familial, sexual, social, community, political, and religious settings. Research seems to indicate differences in the types of relational aggression typical to children of different ages. Younger children are more likely to use direct forms of relational aggression, e.g., "You can't come to my birthday party." In contrast, older children are more likely to use more covert methods of harm, e.g., by making up demeaning stories about the victim and passing them around at school or other environments where social standing is important to the victim. Forms of Relational Abuse · Gossip - Where the abuser tells others personal information about the victim. · Lies - Where the abuser lies about the victim to others. · Betrayal - Where the abuser breaks agreements with the victim. · Isolation - Where the abuser prevents the victim from socializing with the victim's friends. · Exclusion - Where the abuser prevents the victim from socializing with the abuser's friends. · Humiliation - Where the abuser humiliates or shames the victim in front of others. Abusive relationships An abusive relationship is an interpersonal relationship characterized by the use or threat of physical or psychological abuse (see battered woman syndrome). Abusive relationships are often characterized by jealousy, emotional withholding, lack of intimacy, infidelity, sexual coercion, verbal abuse, broken promises, physical violence, control games and power plays. Abusive relationships are often progressive. That is, the abuse may get worse over time.Warning signs of relational aggressionThese are some of the warning signs that may indicate abuse: · Physical harm of any kind · Attempts to control aspects of an individual's life (e.g., how one dresses, who one's friends are, what one says, etc.) · Humiliation · Coercing and/or threats of physical harm to an individual or those close to him/her. · Demands to know where an individual is at all times · Abuse of drugs or alcohol · Growing up witnessing an abusive relationship, and/or was abused as a child · An individual "rages" when they are hurt, shamed, or are in jeopardy of losing control in the relationship. Group psychological abuse refers to groups where methods of psychological abuse are frequently or systematically used on their members. Such abuse would be practices that treat the members as objects one is free to manipulate instead of respecting their autonomy, human rights, identity and dignity. In a group can also play mind games with another person that can make the victim seem like they are accepted but in actuality they are back-stabbing the person when his/her back is turned. When the victims request assistance from the abusing group it is not given. Psychological abuse refers to practices that, simply stated, treat a person as an object to be manipulated and used, rather than as a subject whose mind, autonomy, identity, and dignity are to be honored. Such groups can be whole countries, applying psychological coercion on their population like the Taliban-era Afghanistan or North Korea, or political, commercial, or religious groups. Some scholars in the wake of Robert Jay Lifton or Margaret Singer have associated group psychological abuse with brainwashing or mind control and with cults. The concepts to have similarities and overlap in some places, but they are not identical. Oppression is the negative outcome experienced by people targeted by the biased exercise of power in a society or social group. It is particularly closely associated with nationalism and derived social systems, wherein identity is built by antagonism to the other. The term itself derives from the idea of being "weighted down." A bigot is a prejudiced person who is intolerant of opinions, lifestyles, or identities differing from his or her own. The origin of the word bigot in English dates back to at least 1598, via Middle French, and started with the sense of "religious hypocrite”, especially a woman. Bigot is often used as a pejorative term against a person who is obstinately devoted to prejudices even when these views are challenged or proven to be false or not universally applicable or acceptable. Mental disorder or mental illness are terms used to refer a psychological or physiological pattern that occurs in an individual and is usually associated with distress or disability that is not expected as part of normal development or culture. The recognition and understanding of mental disorders has changed over time. Definitions, assessments, and classifications of mental disorders can vary, but guideline criterion listed in the ICD, DSM and other manuals are widely accepted by mental health professionals. Categories of diagnoses in these schemes may include mood disorders, anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, eating disorders, developmental disorders, personality disorders, and many other categories. In many cases there is no single accepted or consistent cause of mental disorders, although they are widely understood in terms of a diathesis-stress model and biopsychosocial model. Mental disorders have been found to be common, with over a third of people in most countries reporting sufficient criteria at some point in their life. Mental health services may be based in hospitals or in the community. Mental health professionals diagnose individuals using different methodologies, often relying on case history and interview. Psychotherapy and psychiatric medication are two major treatment options, as well as supportive interventions. Treatment may be involuntary where legislation allows. A number of movements campaign for changes to mental health services and attitudes, including the Consumer/Survivor Movement. There are widespread problems with stigma and discrimination.

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This is a brief History of Slavery, I am hoping to add an update of Slavery in the 21st Century . Slavery is a social-economic system under which certain persons — known as slaves — are deprived of personal freedom and compelled to perform labour or services. The term also refers to the status or condition of those persons who are treated as the property of another person or household. This is referred to as "chattel slavery". Slaves are held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase, or birth, and are deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to receive compensation in return for their labour. As such, slavery is one form of unfree labour. Although outlawed in nearly all countries today, slavery is still secretly practiced in many parts of the world. There are an estimated 27 million victims of slavery worldwide. In Mauritania alone, it is estimated that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are enslaved, many of them used as bonded labour. Slavery in Mauritania was finally criminalized in August 2007.In Niger, slavery is also a current phenomenon. A Nigerien study has found that more than 800,000 people are enslaved, almost 8% of the population. In most institutions of slavery throughout the world, the children of slaves became the property of the master. Local laws varied as to whether the status of the mother or of the father determined the fate of the child, but it was usually determined by the status of the mother. In many cultures, slaves could earn their freedom through hard work and buying their own freedom. This was not possible in all cultures. According to the Anti-Slavery Society, "Although there is no longer any state which legally recognizes, or which will enforce, a claim by a person to a right of property over another, the abolition of slavery does not mean that it ceased to exist. There are millions of people throughout the world — mainly children — in conditions of virtual slavery, as well as in various forms of servitude which are in many respects similar to slavery." It further notes that slavery, particularly child slavery, was on the rise in 2003. It points out that there are countless others in other forms of servitude (such as peonage, bonded labor and servile concubinage) which are not slavery in the narrow legal sense. Critics claim they are stretching the definition and practice of slavery beyond its original meaning, and are actually referring to forms of unfree labour other than slavery. In China in 2007, dozens of people have been jailed for enslaving hundreds of people. Female slavery Female slaves, who were mostly from Africa, were long traded to the Middle Eastern countries and kingdoms by Arab traders, and sold into sexual slavery to work as concubines or prostitutes. Typically, females were sold at a lower price than their male counterparts, with one exception being when (predominantly) Irish women captured in Viking raids were sold to the Middle East in the 800-1200 period. Western slavery In the West, slavery ended during the Medieval period, only to be revived after the Renaissance and its appreciation of the organization of classical society (i.e. ancient Greece and Rome). Human trafficking Trafficking in human beings, sometimes called human trafficking, or sex trafficking (as the majority of victims are women or children forced into prostitution) is not the same as people smuggling. A smuggler will facilitate illegal entry into a country for a fee, but on arrival at their destination, the smuggled person is free; the trafficking victim is enslaved. Victims do not agree to be trafficked: they are tricked, lured by false promises, or forced into it. Traffickers use coercive tactics including deception, fraud, intimidation, isolation, threat and use of physical force, debt bondage or even force-feeding with drugs of abuse to control their victims. Whilst the majority of victims are women, and sometimes children, forced into prostitution, other victims include men, women and children forced into manual labor. Due to the illegal nature of trafficking, the exact extent is unknown. A US Government report published in 2003, estimates that 800,000-900,000 people worldwide are trafficked across borders each year. This figure does not include those who are trafficked internally

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaCruelty to animals Cruelty to Animals refers to treatment or standards of care that cause unwarranted or unnecessary suffering or harm to animals. Standards of both animal cruelty legislation, and enforcement, may vary between different places from non-existent through to comprehensive, and the acts and conditions which are deemed "cruel" also vary. Opinions are divided whether practices such as factory farming, fur farming and animal testing of medical procedures and consumer products pose a major moral issue. Cases in which cruelty to animals is due to a deliberate wish to be cruel (as opposed to neglect), are known as zoosadism, and have been repeatedly linked via research with abuse and cruelty to people (including the more sensationalist examples of torture and killing). In such extreme cases cruelty to animals may also have occurred, as a "rehearsal" or as an aspect of development. However this should be viewed in perspective; not all cruelty is sadism, nor are all persons who are cruel to animals necessarily going to be abusive towards people. Laws against animal cruelty Many jurisdictions around the world have enacted statutes which forbid cruelty to some animals; for example, see Animal Protection Laws of the USA & Canada (2007) or Cruelty to Animals Acts in the United States (2001). These statutes provide minimum requirements for care and treatment of animals, but do not require optimal treatment or address issues of confinement, lack of environmental enrichments, or stress. They require that animals be provided shelter, food, water and medical treatment and that animals not be tortured, or killed in an inhumane manner. Some practices, even if controversial (such as treatment of rodeo and circus animals or medical research or animals deemed pests, including geese), are usually exempted from the enforcement of laws against cruelty. In a few jurisdictions, notably Massachusetts and New York, agents of humane societies and associations may be appointed as special officers to enforce statutes outlawing animal cruelty, see the Massachusetts statute and the New York statute. Brute Force: Animal Police and the Challenge of Cruelty by Arnold Arluke is an ethnographic study of these special humane law enforcement officers. In 2004, a Florida legislator proposed a ban on "cruelty to bovines", stating: "A person who, for the purpose of practice, entertainment, or sport, intentionally fells, trips, or otherwise causes a cow to fall or lose its balance by means of roping, lassoing, dragging, or otherwise touching the tail of the cow commits a misdemeanor of the first degree." It is to be noted, however, that in the USA ear cropping, tail docking, the Geier Hitch, rodeo sports and other acts perceived as cruelty in many other countries are often condoned. Penalties for cruelty can be minimal, if pursued. Currently, 43 of the 50 states have enacted felony penalties for certain forms of animal abuse.However, in most jurisdictions, animal cruelty is most commonly charged as a misdemeanor offense. In one recent California case, a felony conviction for animal cruelty could theoretically net a 25 year to life sentence due to their three-strikes law, which increases sentences based on prior felony convictions. In Australia, many states have enacted legislation outlawing cruelty to animals. Whilst police maintain an overall jurisdiction in prosecution of criminal matters, in many states officers of the RSPCA and other animal welfare charities are accorded authority to investigate and prosecute animal cruelty offences. Most jurisdictions simply depend on law enforcement officers who may not be knowledgeable in the area or assign it a high priority. Spectacular stories about grave atrocities and animal hoarders are mainstays of local TV news reporting, but most offences concern lack of adequate shelter or food and similar mundane deficiencies in animal care. In the United Kingdom, cruelty to animals is a criminal offence and one may be fined or jailed for it for up to five years. One notable case occurred when a group of students placed a hedgehog in a microwave in the late 1990s. Bestiality is also a criminal offense. One may also be prosecuted for running over an animal.The RSPCA, founded in 1824 as the SPCA, was the first animal welfare society in the world. In Mexico, animal cruelty laws are slowly being implemented. The Law of Animal Protection of the Federal District is wide-ranging, based on banning 'unnecessary suffering'. The law prohibits conducts from dissection for students in high school or earlier years, to negligence of the owner in providing medical attention to an animal that needs it. Similar laws now exist in most states. However, this is blatantly disregarded by much of the public and authorities; animal protection legislation is gaining relevance very slowly.Cruelty to animals in film making There is a case of cruelty to animals in the South Korean film The Isle, according to its director Kim Ki-Duk. In the film, a real frog is skinned alive while fishes are mutilated. Several animals were killed for the camera in the controversial Italian film Cannibal Holocaust. The images in the film include the slow and graphic beheading and ripping apart of a turtle, a monkey being beheaded and its brains being consumed by natives and a spider being chopped apart. In fact, Cannibal Holocaust was only one film in a collective of similarly themed movies (cannibal films) that featured unstaged animal cruelty. Their influences were rooted in the films of Mondo filmmakers, which sometimes contained similar content. The 2007 film Halloween features a young Michael Myers who tortures and murders small animals, as we can see from Polaroids. More recently, the video sharing site YouTube has been criticized for hosting thousands of videos of real life animal cruelty, especially the feeding of one animal to another for the purposes of entertainment and spectacle. In spite of these videos being flagged as inappropriate by many users, YouTube has generally failed to take the same policing actions to remove them that they have with videos containing copyright infringement or sexual content. Cruelty to animals in the military and war Spc. Philip Chrystal describes how his squad leader shoots a dog in Iraq "And we were approaching this one house," he said. "In this farming area, they're, like, built up into little courtyards. So they have, like, the main house, common area. They have, like, a kitchen and then they have a storage shed-type deal. And we're approaching, and they had a family dog. And it was barking ferociously, 'cause it's doing its job. And my squad leader, just out of nowhere, just shoots it. He shot it and it went in the jaw and exited out. So I see this dog--I'm a huge animal lover; I love animals--and this dog has, like, these eyes on it and he's running around spraying blood all over the place. And like, you know, what the hell is going on? The family is sitting right there, with three little children and a mom and a dad, horrified. And I'm at a loss for words. And so, I yell at him. I'm, like, what the heck are you doing? And so the dogs yelping. It's crying out without a jaw. And I'm looking at the family, and they're just, you know, dead scared. And so I told them, I was like, Freaking shoot it, you know? At least kill it, because that can't be fixed” End Quote....PETA’ s Ingrid Newkirk wrote to then President of the Palestinian National Authority Yasser Arafat after learning that a donkey, laden with explosives, was intentionally blown up on January 26, 2003 in Jerusalem. Newkirk wrote that “Animals claim no nation. They are in perpetual involuntary servitude to all humankind, and although they pose no threat and own no weapons, human beings always win in the undeclared war against them." Newkirk asked Arafat to leave animals out of the conflict. Animal abuse in the circus The use of animals in the circus has been a matter for controversy recently, as animal welfare groups have documented instances of animal cruelty, used in the training of performing animals e.g. video evidence filmed by Animal Defenders International and by PETA. The Humane Society of the United States has documented multiple cases of abuse and neglect. Some animals go berserk, as in the case of Tyke, an elephant with Circus International in Honolulu, Hawaii who killed her trainer then ran loose outside until she was shot and killed with almost 100 bullets video. The Humane Society of the United States and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals present their case here and here as to why the use of animals, especially wild animals, ought to be disallowed in circuses. Animal trainers, however, deny that such abuse is commonplace Sweden, Austria, Costa Rica, India, Finland, and Singapore have restricted the use of animals in entertainment. The UK and Scottish Parliaments have committed to ban certain wild animals in travelling circuses. Approximately 200 local authorities in the UK have banned all animal acts on council land. Animal acts are still very popular in former Soviet Union and throughout much of Europe, the Americas, and Asia. In the United States animal welfare standards are overseen by the United States Department of Agriculture under provisions of the Animal Welfare Act, however, says the HSUS, "while standards for handling, care, treatment, and transport are written into the federal Animal Welfare Act (administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture), those standards are minimal and poorly enforced. Persistent violators are rarely prosecuted" . One can view or request the USDA inspection reports for conditions of animals at various circuses here Efforts to ban circus animals in cities like Denver, Colorado have been rejected by voters. Activists saw the defeat as evidence that "big business won, wild animals lost" In response to a growing unease from the public about the use of animals in entertainment the formation of animal free circuses have begun cropping up around the globeList of animal welfare groups From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Animal welfare groups argue for greater protection for non-human animals, particularly those used by human beings in laboratories or in entertainment, as well as domestic animals such as those used for food, labour, or as companions (pets). Unlike animal rights groups, animal welfare groups do not argue that animals should never be used, or kept as property, by human beings. Nor do any animal welfare groups advocate violence. These groups tend to seek legal, social and financial strategies. The following is a list of animal welfare groups. For animal rights, see the list of animal rights groups. · American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) · Animal Chaplains · Animal Legal Defense Fund (ALDF) · Animal Protection Institute (API) · Animal Welfare Institute (AWI) · Born Free Foundation · The Blue Cross · Cats Protection (formerly Cats Protection League) · Christian Vegetarian Association (CVA) · Compassion In World Farming (CIWF) · Dogs Trust (formerly National Canine Defence League) · The Fox Project · Global Animal Transport · Humane Society · Humane Society of the United States · International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) · League Against Cruel Sports (previously also known as LACS) · Progressive Animal Welfare Society (PAWS) · People's Dispensary for Sick Animals (PDSA) · Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) · Scottish SPCA (SSPCA) · Society for Animal Protective Legislation (SAPL) · The Shark Trust organization · Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW) · Research project Welfare Quality www.welfare quality.net · Viva! Domestic violence (sometimes referred to as domestic abuse) occurs when a family member, partner or ex-partner attempts to physically or psychologically dominate another. Domestic violence often refers to violence between spouses, but can also include cohabitants and non-married intimate partners. The term "intimate partner violence" (IPV) is often used synonymously. Other terms include wife or husband beating, battering, "relationship violence", "domestic abuse", and "spousal abuse". Family violence is a broader definition, often used to include child abuse, elder abuse, and other violent acts between family members. Recent attention to domestic violence began in the women's movement as concern about wives being beaten by their husbands, and has remained a major focus of modern feminism, particularly in terms of "violence against women". Popular emphasis has tended to be on women as the victims of domestic violence although with the rise of the men's movement, and particularly men's rights, there is now some advocacy for men as victims, although the statistics concerning the number of male victims given by them are strongly contested by many groups active in research on or working in the field of domestic violence and "violence against men". Domestic violence occurs in all cultures; people of all races, ethnicities, religions, and classes can be perpetrators of domestic violence. Domestic violence is perpetrated by, and on, both men and women, and occurs in same-sex and opposite-sex relationships. Awareness and documentation of domestic violence differs from country to country. Estimates are that only about a third of cases of domestic violence are actually reported in the US and UK. In other places with less attention and less support, reported cases would be still lower. According to the Centers for Disease Control, domestic violence is a serious, preventable public health problem affecting more than 32 million Americans, or more than 10% of the U.S. population (Tjaden and Thoennes 2000). Domestic violence has many forms, including physical violence, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, intimidation, economic deprivation or threats of violence. There are a number of dimensions: · mode - physical, psychological, sexual and/or social · frequency - on/off, occasional, chronic · severity – in terms of both psychological or physical harm and the need for treatment – transitory or permanent injury – mild, moderate, severe up to homicide. The means used to measure domestic violence strongly influence the results found. For example, studies of reported domestic violence and extrapolations of those studies show women preponderantly as victims and men to be more violent, whereas the survey based Conflict Tactics Scale, tends to show men and women equally violent.Types Domestic violence can take the form of physical violence, including direct physical violence ranging from unwanted physical contact to rape and murder Indirect physical violence may include destruction of objects, striking or throwing objects near the victim, or harm to pets. In addition to physical violence, spousal abuse often includes mental or emotional abuse, including verbal threats of physical violence to the victim, the self, or others including children, ranging from explicit, detailed and impending to implicit and vague as to both content and time frame, and verbal violence, including threats, insults, put-downs, and attacks. Nonverbal threats may include gestures, facial expressions, and body postures. Psychological abuse may also involve economic and/or social control, such as controlling victim's money and other economic resources, preventing victim from seeing friends and relatives, actively sabotaging victim's social relationships and isolating victim from social contacts. Spiritual abuse is another form of abuse that may occur. The form and characteristics of domestic violence and abuse may vary in other ways. Michael P. Johnson (1995, 2006b) argues for three major types of intimate partner violence. The typology is supported by subsequent research and evaluation by Johnson and his colleagues, as well as independent researchers.Types identified by Johnson include: · Intimate terrorism (or "patriarchal terrorism") where one partner uses violence along with emotional and psychological abuse to maintain control over the other. In heterosexual relationships, the perpetrator is most often the male partner. It is more likely than other types to be frequent and to escalate in seriousness. Intimate terrorism is much less common than situational couple violence, but probably dominates samples collected from agencies (police, courts, hospitals). · Violent resistance is violence used in resistance to an intimate terrorist. Sometimes it is self-defensive, sometimes more like payback, sometimes the act of an entrapped victim who sees no other way to escape a violently abusive relationship. · Situational couple violence arises out of conflicts that escalate to arguments and then to violence. It is not connected to a general pattern of control. Although it occurs less frequently in relationships and is less serious than intimate terrorism, in some cases it can be frequent and/or quite serious, even life-threatening. This is probably the most common type of intimate partner violence and dominates general surveys, student samples, and even marriage counseling samples. The fourth type identified by Johnson is infrequent and some scholars question its existence: · Mutual violent control is when both partners are violent and controlling and they possibly battle for control in the relationship. As with intimate terrorism, violence is one form of control used by each abuser. Physical violence Physical violence is the intentional use of physical force with the potential for causing injury, harm, disability, or death, for example, hitting, shoving, biting, restraint, kicking, or use of a weapon. Profile of an abuser Psychologists have studied certain personality characteristics of individuals who batter their partner. These include: · Blames others for problems/feelings · Closed-mindedness · Cruelty to animals and/or children · Hypersensitivity · Isolation of victim · Jealousy · Manipulation through guilt · Minimization of violence · Objectification of women · "Playful" use of force during sex · Quick Involvement · Rigid sex roles · Threats of violence · Tight control of finances · Unrealistic expectations · Verbal abuse Sexual violence and incest Sexual violence and incest are divided into three categories: 1. use of physical force to compel a person to engage in a sexual act against their will, whether or not the act is completed; 2. attempted or completed sex act involving a person who is unable to understand the nature or condition of the act, unable to decline participation, or unable to communicate unwillingness to engage in the sexual act, e.g., because of underage immaturity, illness, disability, or the influence of alcohol or other drugs, because of intimidation or pressure, or because of seduction and submission (as in female forms of sexual aggression); and 3. abusive sexual contact. Psychological abuse Psychological/emotional abuse can include, humiliating the victim, controlling what the victim can and cannot do, withholding information from the victim, deliberately doing something to make the victim feel diminished or embarrassed, isolating the victim from friends and family, and denying the victim access to money or other basic resources. Economic abuse Economic abuse is when the abuser has complete control over the victim's money and other economic resources. Usually, this involves putting the victim on a strict 'allowance', withholding money at will and forcing the victim to beg for the money until the abuser gives them some money. It is common for the victim to receive less money as the abuse continues. This also includes (but is not limited to) preventing the victim from finishing education or obtaining employment. Stalking In addition, stalking is often included among the types of Intimate Partner Violence. Stalking generally refers to repeated behaviour that causes victims to feel a high level of fear (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). However, psychiatrist William Glasser states that fear and all other emotions are self-caused as evidenced by the wide range of emotions two different subjects might have in response to the same incident. Spiritual Abuse Spiritual abuse includes: 1. using the spouse’s or intimate partner’s religious or spiritual beliefs to manipulate them 2. preventing the partner from practicing their religious or spiritual beliefs 3. ridiculing the other person’s religious or spiritual beliefs

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Shaken baby syndrome (SBS) is a form of child abuse that is thought to occur when an abuser violently shakes an infant or small child, creating a whiplash-type motion that causes acceleration-deceleration injuries. The injury is estimated to affect between 1,200 and 1,600 children every year in the USA. A remarkable feature of SBS is the typical lack of external evidence of trauma. The combination of shaking with striking of the infant against a hard object is sometimes termed the shaken impact syndrome. SBS, a major cause of mortality in infants, is often fatal and can produce lifelong disability from neurological damage. Up to 50% of deaths related to child abuse are reportedly due to shaken baby syndrome. About 25% to 30% of infant victims with SBS die from their injuries. Nonfatal consequences of SBS include varying degrees of visual impairment (e.g., blindness), motor impairment (e.g. cerebral palsy) and cognitive impairments Signs and symptoms The signs associated with inflicted SBS include retinal hemorrhages, petechiae (small, pinpoint hemorrhages) on the body or face, multiple fractures of the long bones, and subdural hematomas. These signs have evolved through the years as the accepted and recognized signs of child abuse and the shaken baby syndrome. Additional effects of SBS are diffuse axonal injury, oxygen deprivation and swelling of the brain, which can raise intracranial pressure and damage delicate brain tissue. Most victims of SBS are under one year old. Victims of SBS may display irritability, failure to thrive, alterations in eating patterns, lethargy, vomiting, seizures, bulging or tense fontanels, increased size of the head, altered respirations, and dilated pupils. Medical professionals strongly suspect shaking as the cause of injuries when a baby or small child presents with retinal hemorrhage, fractures, soft tissue injuries or subdural hematoma, that cannot be explained by accidental trauma or other medical conditions. No alternative condition mimics all of the symptoms of SBS exactly, but those that must be ruled out include hydrocephalus, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), seizure disorders, and infectious or congenital diseases like meningitis and metabolic disorders. Fractures of the vertebrae and ribs may also be associated with SBS. Although several bone disorders may also cause increased vulnerability to fractures, they can be distinguished from inflicted trauma by other characteristic alterations of the bones, by gene tests, and by the absence of corroborative evidence of abuse. The principal disorders known to cause increased susceptibility to fracture without other obvious evidence of bone abnormality are the various moderate-severity forms of osteogenesis imperfecta Although bone disease of prematurity, rickets due to vitamin D deficiency, Scurvy (vitamin C deficiency), copper deficiency and Menkes disease can increase fracture susceptibility, the bone disease is accompanied by additional evidence allowing it to be easily distinguished from abuse in nearly all cases. In addition to Barlow's Disease or scurvy, a number of medical conditions, including malformations, premature infants, can mimic SBS, even before birth. Examination by an experienced ophthalmologist is often critical in diagnosing shaken baby syndrome, as particular forms of ocular bleeding are quite characteristic of this condition. Some medical experts assert that "no case studies have ever been undertaken to probe even a partial list of possible confounding variables/phenomena, such as the presence of intracranial cysts or fluid collections, hydrocephalus, congenital and inherited diseases, infection, coagulation disorders and venous thrombosis, recent immunizations," medications, birth-related brain injuries, "or recent or remote head trauma. Until and unless these and probably many more factors are evaluated, it is inappropriate to select one mechanism only and ignore the rest of the potential causes." In 2005, a review of several ophthalmology studies and their findings concerning "inflicted childhood neurotrauma" (SBS) was published in the UK, in the quarterly ophthalmology publication Focus. One of the studies "found a correlation between intra-ocular bleeding, anterior optic nerve haemorrhage and subdural haematomas. Post mortem findings of vitreous traction at the apex of retinal folds and the edge of dome shaped haemorrhages and retinoschisis gives some supporting evidence that vitreous forces may cause this shearing damage. There is no adequate model to test this experimentally, so this remains hypothesis, not established fact." The main scientific finding of two additional studies from the Focus article "was that in cases of retinal haemorrhages with thin film subdurals and in the absence of other injuries that the pathological finding is more commonly that of hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy rather than diffuse axonal injury. Regardless of the recent debate the observational evidence to date remains that children with non accidental injury may have no visible retinal haemorrhages, whilst non accidental injury and birth are the only circumstances in which multiple retinal haemorrhages in differing layers of the retina have been accurately documented." The following references documented cases of retinal hemorrhages from accidental head trauma[ a videotaped minor fall, osteogenesis imperfecta indicating that shaking is not the only possible cause of injury. According to one author, "the presence of retinal hemorrhages is neither necessary nor sufficient for the diagnosis of child abuse." [A postvaccinial ocular syndrome was reported as early as 1948 , [ recent papers have been published concerning the occlusion of central retinal vein after hepatitis B vaccination, "The compounding effects of anoxia or hypoxia, anemia, thrombocytopenia, mild coagulopathy, obstruction of retinal venous flow, or possible age-related anatomic variations in the retinal vasculature are not well understood." Prognosis SBS kills about one third of its victims and permanently and severely disables another third. Problems resulting from SBS include learning disabilities, seizure disorders, speech disability, hydrocephalus, behavioral problems, cerebral palsy, and visual disorders. Prevention Prevention is similar to the prevention of child abuse in general. New parents, babysitters, and other caregivers should be warned about the dangers of shaking infants. Crying is a common trigger for creating irritation and frustration in the caregiver. Some experts have advised that caregivers need strategies to cope with their own frustrations; for example, they should be reminded that they are not always responsible when babies cry. SBS as a medicolegal concept The legal import of shaken baby syndrome varies according to circumstances, often involving child welfare and criminal investigations. Such investigations determine whether children are judged safe to remain in their parents / caregivers' care, and whether an individual may be charged with assault, child endangerment, or homicide. Since the inception of "whiplash shaking" evolving into SBS, the concept has been the subject of criticism by some scientists and jurists for years. In April 2006, a Daubert hearing (a mini-trial within a trial, conducted before the judge only, not the jury, over the validity and admissibility of expert opinion testimony) was conducted concerning the admissibility of proposed medical and scientific evidence in a Kentucky Circuit Court case. A Grand Jury had indicted the defendant of first-degree criminal abuse by violently shaking a child. The Defendant alleges that the child's medical records indicate that the only significant injury for the victim was a subdural hematoma and retinal hemorrhaging and there was no significant bruising, fractures, or evidence of impact. The Commonwealth's case was based upon the theory of shaken baby syndrome. The Court after hearing expert testimony and reviewing the evidence, issued the following conclusion and opinion: "The Court can further conclude that based on the medical signs and symptoms, the clinical medical and scientific research communities are in disagreement as to whether it is possible to determine if a given head injury is due to an accident or abuse.Therefore, the Court finds that because the Daubert test has not been met, neither party can call a witness to give an expert opinion as to whether a child's head injury is due to a shaken baby syndrome when only the child exhibits a subdural hematoma and bilateral ocular bleeding. Either party can call a witness to give an expert opinion as to the cause of the injury being due to shaken baby syndrome, if and only, the child exhibits a subdural hematoma and bilateral ocular bleeding, and any other indicia of abuse present such as long-bone injuries, a fractured skull, bruising, or other indications that abuse has occurred." The trial court's ruling is not considered binding legal precedent. The Commonwealth of Kentucky has appealed the ruling to the state's intermediate appellate court.. In the Summer of 2006 a review of the Shaken Baby Syndrome and the Shaken Impact Syndrome was published in the Military Law Review. This legal review contains an extensive examination of the divergent views of the scientific literature, in addition to examining the divergent views of the legal parameters involving a trial. In July of 2005, the Court of Appeals in the United Kingdom reversed or reduced three convictions of SBS, finding that the classic triad of retinal hemorrhage, subdural hematoma, and acute encephalopathy are not 100% diagnostic of SBS and that clinical history is also important. In their ruling, they upheld the clinical concept of SBS but dismissed two cases and reduced the sentence on a third based on their individual merits. In their words: "Whilst a strong pointer to NAHI [non-accidental head injury] on its own we do not think it possible to find that it must automatically and necessarily lead to a diagnosis of NAHI. All the circumstances, including the clinical picture, must be taken into account." The term "non-accidental trauma'" was suggested instead of "SBS" in the March 27, 2004 edition of the British Medical Journal. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia HOW TO AVOID BEING A VICTIM OF ELDER ABUSE Excerpts taken from the publication, About Elder Abuse. Published by Channing L. Bete Co., Inc.) 1. Plan for the possibility of disability by seeking out an attorney, possibly one who specializes in probate law, who can advise you about powers of attorney, guardianships or conservatorships, natural death acts and "living wills." 2. Consider nominating co-conservators or co-guardians so more than one person knows your affairs and can take action if something goes amiss in the administration of your assets or personal care. 3. Make a will and review it annually, but do not revise it lightly. 4. Be wary about deeding your house or willing your house or other assets to anyone who promises to "keep you out of a nursing home" or take care of you "at home" if you become disabled. 5. Be careful when asked to sign anything. Go the extra step and have someone you trust review the document· Be sure you are thoroughly familiar with your financial status and know how to handle your assets. This is particularly important for older women, who are especially vulnerable to abuse. 7. Arrange for direct deposit of your Social Security check or any other regular payments. 8. Do not rely solely on family for your social life or for care if you have health problems. Continually cultivate friends of all ages so there are always people around who are concerned about you. 9. If an adult child, particularly one, who has led a troubled life, wants to return home to live with you, think it over carefully. Be especially careful if your family has a history of violent behavior or drug/alcohol abuse. Instead, consider supporting the child in his or her own apartment. 10. If there has been alienation from family or friends, make peace to the extent possible-not only because it is a healing thing to do, but because it creates a climate of concern for you. Compiled by Mary Joy Quinn and Susan K. Tomita, authors of the book Elder Abuse and Neglect, (Springer Publishing Company, New York, 1986) Elder abuse Elder abuse is often defined as a single, or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust which causes harm or distress to an older person. This definition was established by Action on Elder Abuse in the UK, but was then subsequently adopted by the World Health Organisation and has, at its core, the concept that such abuse is defined by the 'expectation of trust' of the older person toward their abuser. Consequently, it excludes more general criminal activity such as 'muggings' in the street or 'distraction burglary', where one stranger distracts an older person at their doorstep while another enters the property to steal. In 2006 the United Nations designated June 15th as World Elder Abuse Awareness Day (WEAAD) and an increasing number of events are held across the globe on this day to raise awareness of elder abuse, and highlight ways to challenge such abuse. Although there are common themes of elder abuse across nations, there are also unique manifestations based upon history, culture, economic strength and societal perceptions of older people within nations themselves. The fundamental common denominator is the use of power and control by one individual to affect the well-being and status of another, older, individual. There are several types of abuse of older people that are universally recognised as being elder abuse and these include: · Physical: e.g. hitting, punching, slapping, burning, pushing, kicking, restraining, false imprisonment/confinement, or giving too much medication or the wrong medication; · Psychological: e.g. shouting, swearing, frightening, blaming, ridiculing, constantly criticizing, ignoring or humiliating a person. A common theme is a perpetrator who identifies something that matters to an older person and then uses it to coerce an older person into a particular action; · Financial: e.g. illegal or unauthorized use of a person’s property, money, pension book or other valuables (including changing the person's will to name the abuser as heir), often fraudulently obtaining power of attorney, followed by deprivation of money or other property, or by eviction from own home; · Sexual: e.g. forcing a person to take part in any sexual activity without his or her consent, including forcing them to participate in conversations of a sexual nature against their will; · Neglect: e.g. depriving a person of food, heat, clothing or comfort or essential medication.In addition some countries also recognise the following as elder abuse:· Rights abuse: denying the civil and constitutional rights of a person who is old, but not declared by court to be mentally incapacitated. This is an aspect of elder abuse that is increasingly being recognised and adopted by nations · Self-neglect: elderly persons neglecting themselves by not caring about their own health or safety. Institutional abuse and racial abuse are not usually included in such categories as they tend to denote the motivation or circumstances, rather than the manifestation of abuse. That is not to suggest that institutional practices, often marginalised as examples of 'poor practice', do not form a major aspect of elder abuse, or that racially motivated abuse is not a signicant area of concern. Common abusers of older people Perpetrators of elder abuse can include anyone in a position of control or authority, or anyone who 'grooms' an older person in order to establish a relationship of trust. An abuser can be a partner, a relative, a friend or neighbour, a volunteer worker, a paid worker or a practitioner (e.g. a social worker, bank worker or solicitor). Abusing relatives represent the majority of abusers, and tend to be the spouse/partner or sons and daughters, although the type of abuse differs according to the relationship. In some situations such abuse is 'domestic violence grown old', a situation in which the abusive behaviour of one partner toward another continues into old age. In other situations it is older people attempting to care and support other older people and failing, in the absence of external support. With sons and daughters it tends to be financial abuse, justified by a belief that it is nothing more than the 'advance inheritance' of property, valuables and money. Within paid care environments, abuse can occur for a variety of reasons. Some abuse is institutional in that it is a consequence of practices or processes that are integral to the running of a care institution or service. Some abuse is the wilful act of cruelty inflicted by a single individual upon an older person. And some abuse is a consequence of lack of knowledge, lack of training, lack of support, or insufficient resourcing. Sometimes this type of abuse is referred to as 'poor practice', although it is important to recognise that this term reflects the motive of the perpetrator (the causation) rather than the impact upon the older person. With the aging of today's population, there is the potential that elder abuse will increase unless it is more comprehensively recognised and addressed. Abuse statistics There has been limited research into the nature and extent of elder abuse, and it is often argued that the absence of such data is a reflection of the low priority given to work associated with older people. However, some consistent themes are beginning to emerge from interaction with abused elders, and through limited and small scale research projects. Work undertaken in Canada suggests that approximately 70% of elder abuse is perpetrated against women, and this is supported by evidence from the AEA helpline in the UK which identifies women as victims in 67% of calls. Also domestic violence in later life may be a continuation of long term partner abuse and, in some cases, abuse may begin with retirement or the onset of a health condition.[3] Certainly, abuse increases with age, with 78% of victims being over 70 years of age.[4] The higher proportion of spousal homicides supports the suggestion that abuse of older women is often a continuation of long term spousal abuse against women. In contrast, the risk of homicide for older men was far greater outside the family than within. This is an important point because the domestic violence of older people is often not recognised, and consequently strategies which have proved effective within the domestic violence arena have not been routinely transferred into circumstances involving the family abuse of older people. According to the AEA helpline in the UK, abuse occurs primarily in the family home (64%), followed by residential care(23%)and then hospitals (5%), although it should be noted that a helpline does not necessarily provide a true reflection of such situations. Abandonment Elder abuse can also include deserting an elderly, dependent person with the intent to abandon them or leave them unattended at a place for such a time period as may be likely to endanger their health or welfare. Self abuse and neglect Elders can abuse / neglect themselves by not caring about their own personal health and well-being. Elder self-neglect can lead to illness, injury or even death. Common needs that the senior may deny themselves or ignore are the following: · Sustenance (food or water) · Cleanliness (bathing and personal hygiene) · Adequate clothing for climate protection · Proper shelter · Adequate safety · Clean and healthy surroundings · Medical attention for serious illness · Essential medications It should be noted that elders may choose to deny themselves some health or safety benefits, which may not be self-neglect. This may simply be their personal choice. Caregivers and other responsible individuals must honor these choices if the senior is sound of mind. Adult Protective ServicesIn the United States, Adult Protective Services (APS) are social services provided to abused, neglected, or exploited older and/or disabled adults. APS is typically administered by local or state health, aging, or regulatory departments and includes a multi-disciplinary approach to helping victims of elder abuse. Services range from investigation of mistreatment to legal intervention in the form of court orders or surrogate decision makers such as a legal guardian. Many states provide adult protective services to older adults only, such as the case in Ohio where the APS law applies to those 60 and older. Other states provide adult protective services to anyone over the age of 18. APS is intended to assist vulnerable adults such as those with disabilities due to aging, health related issues, or dementia. Forms of abuse include physical, emotional, verbal, and sexual abuse. Exploitation can be either financial or material in nature. Neglect can be perpetrated by any caregiver who has accepted the responsibility of assisting an older or disabled adult. Additionally, many states include self-neglect in their definition of those needing adult protective services. Self-neglect involves an individual's inability to care for themselves due to physical or cognitive deficits

Heroes:

There are several types of rape, generally categorized by reference to the situation in which it occurs, the identity or chacteristics of the victim, and/or the identity or characteristics of the perpetrator. Types of rape - by violation of consent Acquaintance ("date") rape Forcible date rapeThe term "acquaintance rape" or "date rape" refers to rape or non-consensual sexual activity between people who are already acquainted, or who know each other socially friends, acquaintances, people on a date, or even people in an existing romantic relationship—where it is alleged that consent for sexual activity was not given, or was given under duress. The vast majority of rapes are committed by people who already know the victim. Drug facilitated date rapeVarious drugs are used by rapists to render their victims unconscious, some also cause memory loss. This also means that the victim may be un-able to resist, what some may consider to think may be consensual sex. Spousal rapeAlso known as spouse, marital rape, wife rape, husband rape, partner rape or intimate partner sexual assault (IPSA), is rape between a married or de facto couple. It is often assumed that spousal rape is less traumatic than that from a stranger. Research reveals that victims of marital/partner rape suffer longer lasting trauma than victims of stranger rape, possibly because of a lack of social validation that prevents a victim from getting access to support; a problem that domestic violence services combat. Different countries have different rape laws. In many countries it is not possible to commit the crime of rape against one's own wife or husband. Even more so, if two people are regularly sexually intimate, in many countries it is not a crime for one partner to have sex with their sleeping or drunk partner even though that partner did not give express consent. College campus rape Some studies indicate a particular problem with rape on college campuses. The subject attracts attention because of the presence of many young men and women, often experiencing their first years away from home together, in an environment where prior controls, supervision and discipline are to a great extent removed, and where youths are in a position to engage in adult behavior with some anticipating new activities and freedoms, whilst others are left more vulnerable and less supervised. In the United States, students are allegedly most vulnerable to rape during the initial weeks of the first two years. According to the U.S. Justice Department, 3.8% of college women and 1.7% of men were victims of completed rape within a six month period, and in 90% of the cases the attacker was known to the victim. In a typical college career, one-fifth to one-fourth were victims of attempted or completed rape. According to one 1992 study, one out of twelve college aged men and one in every twenty college aged women committed rape, making each responsible for an average of three rapes. The Department of Justice study also found that in "about half of the incidents categorized as completed rapes, the women or man did not consider the incident to be a rape." According to the Journal of Counseling and Development, women aged 16–24 are at the highest risk of sexual assault. One study has concluded that as many as one in four college aged females has been a victim of either rape or attempted rape. Group rape Group rape (also known as "gang" or "pack" rape) occurs when a group of people participate in the rape of a single victim. 10% to 20% involve more than one attacker. It is far more damaging to the victim, and in some jurisdictions, is punished more severely than rape by a single person. The term "gang bang"was a synonym for gang rape when public discussion of sexual activity in general was taboo; in the advent of the pornography industry and relaxed sexual tensions, that term is now often used as a slang term for consensual group sex. This is also related to rape as means of warfare, where the pack mentality is highly predominant. Rape of children by parents, elder relatives, and other responsible elders This form of rape is incest when committed by the child's parents or close relatives such as grandparents, aunts and uncles. It is considered incestuous in nature but not in form when committed by other elders, such as priests, nuns or other religious authorities, school teachers, or therapists, to name a few, on whom the child is dependent. Psychologists estimate that 40 million adults, 15 million of those being men (Adams 1991), in the United States were sexually abused in childhood often by parents, close relatives and other elders—of both genders—on whom they were dependent. Children, including but not limited to adolescents, raped by their parents and other close elders are often called 'secret survivors' by psychologists, as they often are unable or unwilling to tell anyone about these rapes due to implicit or explicit threats by the adult rapist, fear of abandonment by the rapist, and/or overwhelming shame. Since the signs of these insidious rapes are usually invisible except to trained professionals; these children often suffer ongoing offenses in silence until independence from the adult rapist is attained. By that time, the statute of limitations is often long-expired, the adult victim's repressed memories are often considered inadmissible as evidence and the child-rapist is able to escape justice. It should be noted that repressed memory syndrome is no longer an issue of debate and has been dismissed as spurious by virtually all responsible psycholgists and legal experts. For more information, see the "repressed memories" article.) Statutory rapeNational and/or regional governments, citing an interest in protecting "young people" (variously defined but sometimes synonymous with minors), treat any sexual contact with such a person as an offense (not always categorised as "rape"), even if he or she agrees to the sexual activity. The offense is often based on a presumption that people under a certain age do not have the capacity to give informed consent. The age at which individuals are considered competent to give consent is called the age of consent. This varies in different countries and regions, and in the US ranges from 14 to 18. Sex which violates age-of-consent law, but is neither violent nor physically coerced, is sometimes described as "statutory rape, " a legally-recognized category in the United States. Prison rapeMany rapes happen in prison. These rapes are often homosexual in nature (since prisons are separated by sex). Interestingly these acts are mostly committed by people who were not homosexual before prison. The attacker is most commonly another inmate, but prison guards may also be involved, primarily in female prisons. . Rape as means of warfare This type of rape is also known as 'war rape.' During war, rape is often used as means of psychological warfare in order to humiliate the enemy and undermine their morale. Rapes in war are often systematic and thorough, and military leaders may actually encourage their soldiers to rape civilians. Likewise, systematic rapes are often employed as a form of ethnic cleansing. During the Yugoslavian Civil War, it was reported that Serbian soldiers herded enemy women into camps, who were then raped on a daily basis until pregnancy occurred. German women who became pregnant after being raped by Soviet soldiers in World War II were invariably denied abortion to further humiliate them as to carry an unwanted child. As a result, according to the book "Berlin: The Downfall, 1945" by Antony Beevor, some 90% of Berlin women in 1945 had venereal diseases as results of consequential rapes and 3.7% of all children born in Germany 1945-1946 had Russian fathers. The history behind this particular rape of the German women by the Soviet troops was considered a taboo topic until 1992. Additionally, in China during World War II, the Nanking Massacre occurred, where rape was used as a tool to humiliate the civilians under Japanese oppression. According to a review of "The GI War against Japan: American Soldiers in Asia and the Pacific during World War II", rape is seen as a method for soldiers to bond with each other, and also to enhance their aggressiveness, and it also "reflects a burning need to establish total dominance of the other"[the enemy]. As a consequence U.S. soldiers rape of Japanese women was "general practice". One Okinawan historian estimates that 10,000 women were raped during the three month Okinawa campaign. During the first 10 days of the occupation of mainland Japan following the Japanese surrender 1,336 cases of rape were reported in the prefecture of Kanagawa alone. (see also Allied war crimes during World War II) In 1998, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda established by the United Nations made landmark decisions that rape is a crime of genocide under international law. In one judgment Navanethem Pillay said: "From time immemorial, rape has been regarded as spoils of war. Now it will be considered a war crime. We want to send out a strong message that rape is no longer a trophy of war."[ From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Date rape From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The term "date rape" refers to rape or non-consensual sexual activity between people who are known to each other either platonically or sexually. These particular instances of sexual assault take place during a social interaction between the rapist and the victim hence the name date rape. It may be either planned or spontaneous. In some cases, "date rape drugs” such as GHB rohypnol, and ketamine may be used to neutralize resistance or even render the victim unconscious. Such drugs will usually also affect memory of the event. Alcohol remains the drug most frequently implicated in substance-assisted sexual assault. Memory loss of the event can lead to an inability to later prosecute as the victim will not remember the exact circumstances of the attack. As such date rape is difficult to prove in most judicial systems. Social issue Understanding date rape as a social issue is very difficult due to conceptual differences about even what constitutes "rape". It both reflects and is reflected by political and sociological differences in ways of viewing gender roles, personal responsibility, and social norms for topics such as flirting, dress, and what physical contact constitutes a violation. Debates on this topic often reflect polarized opinions in which proponents of differing viewpoints are accused of "radical feminism" or being "misogynistic".Some social conservatives such as Irving Kristol and Judith Reisman favor using the issues of date rape and sexual harassment as methods of restoring pre-sexual revolution standards of sexual morality. Similarly, institutional responses, including efforts in the criminal justice system, have been difficult to establish. Colleges and universities, settings in which date rape is considered a common problem because of lowered inhibitions and frequent social activities, have attempted to develop policies and guidelines for prevention and discipline that can be unwieldy and unenforceable. While criminal prosecution of stranger rape (eg: no pre-existing relationship) is sufficiently difficult, date rape can be even more difficult to prosecute. This is due to the highly subjective components involved in determining consent, and conscious intention, as well as attitudes toward gender, toward sexuality, and toward individual responsibility. Further, in a society that is both "obsessed" with but uncomfortable with sex and sexuality, direct communication is too frequently lacking, so that expectations and interpretations vary drastically between the potential "perpetrator" and the potential "victim". With the addition of socially sanctioned use of alcohol (over 80% of date rapes included the use of alcohol by at least one partner, while over 50% involved the use by both partners) the likelihood of such miscommunication goes even higher.----From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article focuses on repetitive self-injury, not severe self-injury inflicted during psychosis, such as eye enucleation and amputation. For other forms of self injury not addressed in this article, please refer to Body modification,, Algolagnia and Wartime Self injury.Self-injury (SI) or self-harm (SH) is deliberate injury inflicted by a person upon his or her own body without suicidal intent. Some scholars use more technical definitions related to specific aspects of this behaviour. These acts may be aimed at relieving otherwise unbearable emotions, sensations of unreality and numbness. It is listed in the DSM-IV-TR as a symptom of borderline personality disorder and is sometimes associated with mental illness, a history of trauma and abuse, eating disorders, or mental traits such as low self-esteem or perfectionism. There is a positive statistical correlation between self-injury and emotional abuse Definition Self-injury, sometimes referred to as self-harm (SH), self-inflicted violence (SIV) or self-injurious behavior (SIB), refers to a spectrum of behaviors where demonstrable injury is self-inflicted. The term self-mutilation is also sometimes used, although this phrase evokes connotations that some find worrisome, inaccurate, or offensive. A broader definition of self-injury might also include those who inflict harm on their bodies by means of disordered eating, as well as tattooing or body piercing that goes beyond the limits of culturally accepted body modification. A common belief regarding self-injury is that it is an attention-seeking behavior; however, in most cases, this is untrue. Most self-injurers are very self-conscious of both their wounds and scars, and go to great lengths to conceal their behavior from others. They may offer alternative explanations for their injuries, or conceal their scars with clothing. Self-injury in such individuals is not associated with suicidal or para-suicidal behavior. The person who self-injures is not usually seeking to end his or her own life; it has been suggested instead that he or she is using self-injury as a coping mechanism to relieve emotional pain or discomfort. However, studies of individuals with developmental disabilities (such as mental retardation) have shown self-injury being dependent on environmental factors such as obtaining attention or escape from demands. Methods of injury A common form of self-injury involves making cuts in the skin of the arms, legs, abdomen, inner thighs, etc. This is colloquially referred to as "cutting"; a person who routinely does this may be colloquially called a "cutter". The number of self-injury methods are only limited to an individual's creativity. The bodily locations of self-injury are often areas that are easily hidden and concealed from the detection of others. Examples of self-injury other than cutting include: · Punching, hitting and scratching · Choking, constricting of the airway · Self-biting of hands, limbs, tongue, lips, or arms · Picking at or re-opening wounds (dermatillomania), ulceration, or sutures. · Hair-pulling (trichotillomania) · Burning, including cigarette burns, and self-incendiarism (as well as eraser burns, chemical burns (example; salt and ice burns)) · Stabbing self with wire, pins, needles, nails, staples, pens, or hair accessories · Ingesting corrosive chemicals, batteries, or pins · Self-poisoning; for example by over-dosing on medication and/or alcohol, without suicidal intent · Self-injury among individuals with developmental disabilites often involves relatively simple actions, such as banging one's head against a hard surface, punching hard surfaces, biting oneself (usually hands or arms), or picking wounds. It may also include pica, the swallowing of nonfood items, which can be extremely dangerous and sometimes fatal. Other definitions Strictly speaking, self-harm is a general term for self-damaging activities (which could include such activities as alcohol abuse or bulimia). Self-injury refers more specifically to the practice of cutting, bruising, poisoning, over-dosing (without suicidal intent), burning, or otherwise directly injuring the body. Many people, including health-care workers, define self-harm based around the act of damaging one's own body. It may be more accurate to define self-harm based around the intent, and the emotional distress that the person wishes to deal with. An example of this form of definition is provided by the self-injury awareness charity, LifeSIGNS. Neither the DSM-IV-TR nor the ICD-10 provide diagnostic criteria for self-injury. It is often seen as only a symptom of an underlying disorder, though many people who self-injure would like this to be addressed. Self-inflicted wounds is a specific term associated with soldiers, where they inflicted harm on themselves (commonly a shot in the foot or hand) in order to obtain early dismissal from combat.This differs from the common definition of self-injury as the damage is inflicted for a specific secondary purpose. Demographics Accurate statistics on self-injury are hard to come by since most self-injurers conceal their injuries. Recorded figures tend to be based on hospital admissions, though more recently researchers have attempted to document the topography and correlates of the behavior in the general population. Studies based only on hospital admissions may hide the larger group of self-injurers who do not need or seek hospital treatment for their injuries. Many of these statistics show that more women seem to self-injure than men, and that it is more common among young people. This most likely explains the female bias that the media seems to portray in its attitude to self-injury, despite research in 2006 by Marchetto which suggests otherwise. "No gender differences were observed among skin-cutters, most of whom reported experiences of trauma. Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) was recorded for a minority of those skin-cutters without a history of trauma. PBI scores discriminated between non-BPD skin cutters and non-BPD comparison participants without a history of trauma." Marchetto, 2006 · One of the earliest studies into self-injury was carried out in 1986 by Conterio and Favazza, who estimated that 0.75% of the population exhibit self-injurious behavior. Half the sample had been hospitalised for the problem, and 97% of were female. It should be noted that more recent studies show the numbers of self-injurers to be more evenly split between female and male. · A study of self-injurious behavior in college students published by Cornell University researchers in 2006 found that the most common methods of self-injury reported by both male and female subjects were scratching or pinching with fingernails or other objects to the point that bleeding occurred or marks remained on the skin (51.6%), banging or punching objects to the point of bruising or bleeding (37.6%), cutting (33.7%), and punching or banging oneself to the point of bruising or bleeding (24.5%). Female subjects were 2.3 times more likely to scratch or pinch and 2.4 times more likely to cut. Male subjects were 2.8 times more likely than female subjects to punch an object with the intention of injuring themselves. Male subjects were 1.8 times more likely to injure their hands, whereas female subjects were 2.3 times more likely to injure their wrists and 2.4 times more likely to injure their thighs. Self-injury is popularly assumed to represent a female phenomenon, and although there is some disputed support to this claim, the authors of the study believe that the popular association of self-injury with cutting may account for this belief. · The WHO/EURO Multicentre Study of Suicide estimated that the average European rate of self-injury for persons over 15 years is 0.14% for males and 0.193% for females. For each age group the female rate exceeded that of the males, with the highest rate among females in the 15-24 age group and the highest rate among males in the 12-34 age group. Recently, however, it has been found that the female to male ratio, previously thought to be around 2:1, is diminishing – in Ireland it has been close to parity for a number of years. · The Mental Health Foundation estimates the rate in the UK to be 0.77%, and that the majority of people who self-harm are aged between 11 and 25 years, with between 1 in 12 and 1 in 15 young people self-harming . · A 2003 study commissioned by Samaritans found that more than one in ten 15-16 year olds in the UK have deliberately harmed themselves, and that girls of this age were nearly four times more likely to have self-harmed than boys. · In a study of undergraduate students in the United States, 9.8% of the students surveyed indicated that they had purposefully cut or burned themselves on at least one occasion in the past. When the definition of self-injury was expanded to include head-banging, scratching oneself, and hitting oneself along with cutting and burning, 32% of the sample said they had done this. This suggests that this problem is not associated only with severely disturbed psychiatric patients but is not uncommon among young adults. · In a study of psychiatric morbidity carried out in the UK, respondents were asked the question: "Have you ever harmed your-self in any way, but not with the intention of killing yourself?" This survey found an overall lifetime prevalence of 2.4%, this being 2.0% of males and 2.7% of females. · About 10% of admissions to medical wards in the UK are as a result of self-harm, however the majority of these are for drug overdoses, with only 5 to 15% of this number being caused by cutting. · In New Zealand, more females are hospitalised for intentional self-harm than males. Females more commonly choose methods such as self-poisoning that generally are not fatal, but still serious enough to require hospitalization. · A discourse analysis of self-injury research demonstrates methodological and sampling errors that explain the disproportional representation of females that practice self-injury. Brickman argues "Medical discourse has again pathologized the female (99)" and the profiling of self-injurers as female is the unsubstantiated result of social biases. · A study of homeless youth (age 16 to 19) found that 69% of the youth practiced self-injury on at least one occasion with 12% receiving medical attention for the self-inflicted wounds. There was no significant difference in frequency between gender (72% of males vs. 66% females), however gender correlations may be made between the methods of self-injury with the exception of cutting being most common for both. Risk factors A number of social or psychological factors can be seen to have a positive statistical correlation with self-injury or its repetition. People experiencing various forms of mental ill-health can be considered to be at higher risk of self-injuring. Key issues are depression, phobias, and conduct disorders. Substance abuse is also considered a risk factor as are some personal characteristics such as poor problem resolution skills, impulsivity, hopelessness and aggression. Emotionally invalidating environments where parents punish children for expressing sadness or hurt can attribute to a lack of trust in oneself and difficulty experiencing intense emotions. Abuse during childhood is accepted as a primary social factor, also losing a parent or loved one, along with troubled parental or partner relationships. Factors such as war, poverty, and unemployment may also contribute. In addition, some individuals with pervasive developmental disabilities, more popularly known as autism, engage in self injury, while is debated whether it is a form of self stimulation or for the purpose of harming one's self. However, some people who self-injure have no experience of these factors. PsychologyAttempts to understand self-injury fall broadly into either attempts to interpret motives, or application of psychological models. Motives for self-injury are often personal, often do not fit into medicalised models of behaviour and may seem incomprehensible to others, as demonstrated by this quote: "My motivations for self-harming were diverse, but included examining the interior of my arms for hydraulic lines. This may sound strange." Motives for self-injury can be different. Some feel as if they are not good enough. It's often difficult for them to open up and tell about their "secret shame". When they do tell somebody often that person does not understand. Assessment of motives in a medical setting is usually based on precursors to the incident, circumstances and information from the patient however the limited studies comparing professional and personal assessments show that these differ with professionals suggesting more manipulative or punitive motives. The UK ONS study reported only two motives: “to draw attention” and “because of anger”. Many people who self-injure state that it allows them to "go away" or dissociate, separating the mind from feelings that are causing anguish. This may be achieved by tricking the mind into believing the pain felt at the time is caused by self-injury instead of the issues they were facing before: the physical pain therefore acts as a distraction from emotional pain. The sexual organs may be deliberately hurt as a way to deal with unwanted feelings of sexuality, or as a means of punishing sexual organs that may be perceived as having responded in contravention to the persons well being. (e.g., responses to child sexual abuse) To complement this theory, one can consider the need to 'stop' feeling emotional pain and mental agitation. "A person may be hyper-sensitive and overwhelmed; a great many thoughts may be revolving within their mind, and they may either become triggered or could make a decision to stop the overwhelming feelings." Alternatively self-injury may be a means of feeling something, even if the sensation is unpleasant and painful. Those who self-injure sometimes describe feelings of emptiness or numbness (anhedonia), and physical pain may be a relief from these feelings. "A person may be detached from himself or herself, detached from life, numb and unfeeling. They may then recognise the need to function more, or have a desire to feel real again, and a decision is made to create sensation and ‘wake up’." A flow diagram of these two theories accompanies this section. It is also important to note that many self-injurers report feeling very little to no pain while self-harming. Those who engage in self-injury face the contradictory reality of harming themselves whilst at the same time obtaining relief from this act. It may even be hard for some to actually initiate cutting, but they often do because they know the relief that will follow. For some self-injurers this relief is primarily psychological whilst for others this feeling of relief comes from the beta endorphins released in the brain (the same chemicals that are thought to be responsible for the "runner's high"). These act to reduce tension and emotional distress and may lead to a feeling of calm. As a coping mechanism, self-injury can become psychologically addictive because, to the self-injurer, it works; it enables him/her to deal with intense stress in the current moment. The patterns sometimes created by it, such as specific time intervals between acts of self-injury, can also create a behavioral pattern that can result in a wanting or craving to fulfill thoughts of self-injury. Another possible source of self-injury can be self-loathing, often as a means of punishment for having strong feelings that they were expected to suppress when they were children, or because they feel bad and undeserving, having previously been physically or emotionally abused and feeling that they were deserving of the abuse. Causes Even though there is the possibility that a self-inflicted injury may result in life-threatening damage, self injury is not suicidal behavior. Although the person may not recognize the connection, Self Injury (SI) usually occurs when facing what seems like overwhelming or distressing feelings. The reasons self-injurers give for this behavior vary: · Self-injury temporarily relieves intense feelings, pressure or anxiety. · Self-injury provides a sense of being real, being alive – of feeling something. · Injuring oneself is a way to externalize emotional internal pain – to feel pain on the outside instead of the inside. · Self-injury is a way to control and manage pain – unlike the pain experienced through physical or sexual abuse. · Self-injury is a way to break emotional numbness (the self-anesthesia that allows someone to cut without feeling pain). · Self-abuse is self-soothing behavior for someone who does not have other means to calm intense emotions. · Self-loathing – some self-injurers are punishing themselves for having strong feelings (which they were usually not allowed to express as children), or for a sense that somehow they are bad and undeserving(an outgrowth of abuse and a belief that it was deserved). · Self-injury followed by tending to wounds is a way to express self-care, to be self-nurturing, for someone who never learned how to do that in a more direct way. · Harming oneself can be a way to draw attention to the need for help, to ask for assistance in an indirect way. · Sometimes self-injury is an attempt to affect others – to manipulate them, make them feel guilty or bad, make them care, or make them go away. · Intense pain can lead to the release of endorphins and therefore become a means of seeking pleasure Self-injury awareness There are many movements among the general self-injury community to make self-injury itself and treatment better known to mental health professionals as well as the general public. SIAD (Self Injury Awareness Day) which is set for March 1 of every year, is one such movement. On this day some people choose to be more open about their own self-injury, and awareness organizations make special efforts to raise awareness about self-injury. Some people wear ribbons to show awareness; commonly orange ribbons are used for this. Sometimes a red and black ribbon is also used, generally signifying a person who self-injures. Sometimes orange is used to represent those who self-injure, white for those who don't injure but show support and white and orange together show someone who is trying to stop or has stopped self-injury. A single white bead on an orange bracelet may sometimes be used for those who want to stop and several mixed white and orange beads is for those who have stopped. Treatment Self-injury may be an indicator of depression and/or other psychological problems. Therapy and skills training can be very useful for those who self-injure. The therapy module used will vary depending on the person's diagnosis and their individual needs. DBT, or Dialectical behavioral therapy can be very successful for those with a personality disorder, and could potentially be used for those with other mental illnesses who exhibit self-injurious behavior. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is generally used to assist those with axis 1 diagnoses, such as depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder. Diagnosis and treatment of the causes is thought by many to be the best approach to self-injury; but in some cases, particularly in clients with a personality disorder, this is not very effective, which is why more clinicians are starting to take a DBT approach in order to reduce the behavior itself. A person who is injuring themselves may be advised to use coping skills, such as journaling or taking a walk, when they have the urge to harm themselves. They may also be told to avoid having the objects they use to harm themselves within easy reach. People who rely on habitual self-injury are sometimes psychiatrically hospitalised, based on their stability, and their ability and especially their willingness to get help. In individuals with developmental disabilities, occurrence of self-injury is often demonstrated to be related to its effects on the environment, such as obtaining attention or desired materials or escaping demands. As developmentally disabled individuals often have communication or social deficits, self-injury may be their way of obtaining these things which they are otherwise unable to obtain in a socially appropriate way (such as by asking). One approach for treating self-injury thus is to teach an alternative, appropriate response which obtains the same result as the self-injury From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaBullying is the act of intentionally causing harm to others through verbal harassment, physical assault, or other more subtle methods of coercion such as manipulation. There is currently no legal definition of bullying. In colloquial speech, bullying often describes a form of harassment perpetrated by an abuser who possesses more physical and/or social power and dominance than the victim. The victim of bullying is sometimes referred to as a target. The harassment can be verbal, physical and/or emotional. Norwegian researcher Dan Olweus defines bullying as when a person is "exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other persons." He defines negative action as "when a person intentionally inflicts injury or discomfort upon another person, through physical contact, through words or in other ways." Bullying can occur in any setting where human beings interact with each other. This includes school, the workplace, home and neighborhoods. Bullying can exist between social groups, social classes and even between countries. Effects The effects of bullying can be serious and even fatal. Mona O’Moore, Ph.D, asserts that "There is a growing body of research which indicates that individuals, whether child or adult who are persistently subjected to abusive behavior are at risk of stress related illness which can sometimes lead to suicide." Victims of bullying can suffer from long term emotional, academic, and behavioral problems. Bullying can cause loneliness, depression, and anxiety as a bullying victim begins to believe that something is wrong with them. Victims can also have a loss of confidence and an increase in susceptibility to illness. Deaths associated with bullying There branden arge inst bullies and others by victims of bullies. Bullying behavior Bullying is an act of repeated aggressive behavior in order to intentionally hurt another person. Bullying is characterized by an individual behaving in a certain way to gain power over another person (Besag, 1989). Behaviors may include name calling, verbal or written abuse, exclusion from activities, exclusion from social situations, physical abuse, or coercion (Carey, 2003; Whitted & Dupper, 2005). Bullies may behave this way to be perceived as popular or tough or to get attention. They may bully out of jealousy or be acting out because they themselves are bullied (Crothers & Levinson, 2004). US National Center for Education Statistics suggests that bullying can be broken into two categories: Direct bullying, and indirect bullying which is also known as social aggression. Ross states that direct bullying involves a great deal of physical aggression such as shoving and poking, throwing things, slapping, choking, punching and kicking, beating, stabbing, pulling hair, scratching, biting and scraping. He also suggests that social aggression or indirect bullying is characterized by forcing the victim into social isolation. This isolation is achieved through a wide variety of techniques, including spreading gossip, refusing to socialize with the victim, bullying other people who wish to socialize with the victim, and criticizing the victim's manner of dress and other socially-significant markers (including the victim's race, religion, disability, etc). Ross (1998) outlines other forms of indirect bullying which are more subtle and more likely to be verbal, such as name calling, the silent treatment, arguing others into submission, manipulation, gossip/ false gossip, lies, rumors/ false rumors, staring, giggling, laughing at the victim, saying certain words that trigger a reaction from a past event, and mocking. Children's charity Act Against Bullying was set up in 2003 to help children who were victims of this type of bullying by researching and publishing coping skills. Characteristics of bullies Research indicates that adults who bully have personalities that are authoritarian, combined with a strong need to control or dominate. It has also been suggested that a deficit in social skills and a prejudicial view of subordinates can be particular risk factors.They hate themselves usually. Further studies have shown that while envy and resentment may be motives for bullying, there is little evidence to suggest that bullies suffer from any deficit in self esteem (as this would make it difficult to bully). However, there are instances where bullying takes place only for humor. It is generally used in this instance by children who were bullied earlier in their lives, on the assumption that those who bullied them derived fun from their acts and that this would teach the victims to do the same. However many bullies have never suffered bullying themselves and only bully others because it is fun and it has nothing to do with being bullied when they were younger, to impress other people or to be socialy accepted. Bullies say these things are the reason for their actions because they won't be punished as badly. Researchers have identified other risk factors such as quickness to anger and use of force, addiction to aggressive behaviors, mistaking others' actions as hostile, concern with preserving self image, and engaging in obsessive or rigid actions. Bullying may also be "tradition" in settings where an age group or higher rank feels superior than lowerclassmen. It is often suggested that bullying behavior has its origin in childhood: "If aggressive behaviour is not challenged in childhood, there is a danger that it may become habitual. Indeed, there is research evidence, to indicate that bullying during childhood puts children at risk of criminal behaviour and domestic violence in adulthood."Bullying does not necessarily involve criminality or physical violence. For example, bullying often operates through psychological abuse or verbal abuse. Bullying can often be associated with street gangs, especially at school. History of bullying High-level forms of violence such as assault and murder usually receive most media attention, but lower-level forms of violence such as bullying, has only in recent years started to be addressed by researchers, educators, parents and legislators (Whitted & Dupper, 2005). It is only in recent years that bullying has been recognised and recorded as a separate and distinct offence, but there have been well documented cases the were recorded in a different context. The Fifth Volume of the Newgate Calendar contains at least one example where Eton Scholars George Alexander Wood and Alexander Wellesley Leith were charged, at Aylesbury Assizes, with killing and slaying the Hon. F. Ashley Cooper on February 28, 1825 in an incident that would now, surely be described as "lethal hazing"[. The Newgate calendar contains several other examples that, while not as distinct, could be considered indicative of situations of bullying. Types of bullying School bullying In schools, bullying usually occurs in areas with minimal or no adult supervision. It can occur in nearly any part in or around the school building, though it more often occurs in PE, exploratory classes, recess, hallways, bathrooms, school buses and waiting for buses, classes that require group work and/or after school activities. Bullying in school sometimes consists of a group of students taking advantage of, or isolating one student in particular, and outnumbering him/her. Bullies also create an imbalance of power by humiliating a student and gaining the loyalty of bystanders who want to avoid becoming the next victim. Targets of bullying in school are often pupils who are considered strange or different by their peers to begin with, making the situation harder for them to deal with. Bullying can also be perpetrated by teachers, especially vain or mean teachers. School bullying is the most praticed out of all of the palces bullying can occur. School shootings receive an enormous amount of media attention. The children who perpetrate these shootings sometimes claim that they were victims of bullying and that they resorted to violence only after the school administration repeatedly failed to intervene. In many of these cases, the victims of the shooters sued both the shooters' families and the schools. Some suggest these rare but horrific events have led schools to try harder to discourage bullying, with programs designed to teach students cooperation, as well as training peer moderators in intervention and dispute resolution techniques, as a form of peer support. American victims and their families have legal recourse, such as suing a school or teacher for failure to adequately supervise, racial or gender discrimination, or other civil rights violations. Special education students who are victimized may sue a school or school board under the ADA or Section 504. Workplace bullying According to the Workplace Bullying and Trauma Institute, workplace bullying is "the repeated mistreatment of one employee targeted by one or more employees with a malicious mix of humiliation, intimidation and sabotage of performance." Statistics show that bullying is 3 times as prevalent as illegal discrimination and at least 1,600 times as prevalent as workplace violence. Statistics also show that while only one employee in every 10,000 becomes a victim of workplace violence, one in six experiences bullying at work. Bullying is also far more common than sexual harassment and verbal abuse. Unlike the more physical form of schoolyard bullying, workplace bullying often takes place within the established rules and policies of the organization and society. Such actions are not necessarily illegal and may not even be against the firm's regulations; however, the damage to the targeted employee and to workplace morale is obvious. Particularly when perpetrated by a group, workplace bullying is sometimes known as mobbing. Cyber-bullying According to Canadian educator Bill Belsey, it: ...involves the use of information and communication technologies such as e-mail, cell phone and pager text messages, instant messaging, defamatory personal Web sites, blogs, online games and defamatory online personal polling Web sites, to support deliberate, repeated, and hostile behaviour by an individual or group, that is intended to harm others. —Cyberbullying: An Emerging Threat to the Always On Generation Bullies will even create blogs to intimidate victims worldwide. Political bullying Jingoism occurs when one country imposes its will on another. This is normally done with military force or threats. With threats, it is common to ensure that aid and grants will not be given to the smaller country or that the smaller country will not be allowed to join a trading organization. Often political corruptions, coup d'états, and kleptocracies are the solution and response to the countries being bullied. Military bullying In 2000, the UK Ministry of Defence (MOD) defined bullying as: “...the use of physical strength or the abuse of authority to intimidate or victimize others, or to give unlawful punishments.” A review of a number of deaths by suicide at Princess Royal Barracks, Deepcut by Nicholas Blake QC indicated that whilst a culture of bullying existed during the mid to late 1990s many of the issues were being addressed as a result of the Defence Training Review. Some argue that this behaviour should be allowed because of a general academic consensus that "soldiering" is different from other occupations. Soldiers expected to risk their lives should, according to them, develop strength of body and spirit to accept bullying. In some countries, ritual hazing among recruits has been tolerated and even lauded as a rite of passage that builds character and toughness; while in others, systematic bullying of lower-ranking, young or physically slight recruits may in fact be encouraged by military policy, either tacitly or overtly. Also, the Russian army usually have older/more experienced candidates abusing - kicking or punching - less experienced soldiers. Hazing Hazing is an often ritualistic test, which may constitute harassment, abuse or humiliation with requirements to perform meaningless tasks; sometimes as a way of initiation into a social group. The term can refer to either physical (sometimes violent) or mental (possibly degrading) practices. It is a subjective matter where to draw to line between 'normal' hazing (somewhat abusive) and a mere rite of passage (essentially bonding; proponents may argue they can coincide), and there is a gray area where exactly the other side passes over into sheer degrading, even harmful abuse that should not even be tolerated if accepted voluntarily (serious but avoidable accidents do still happen; even deliberate abuse with similar grave medical consequences occurs, in some traditions even rather often). Furthermore, as it must be a ritual initiation, a different social context may mean a same treatment is technically hazing for some, not for others, e.g. a line-crossing ceremony when passing the equator at sea is hazing for the sailor while the extended (generally voluntary, more playful) application to passengers is not. Hazing has been reported in a variety of social contexts, including: · Sports teams · Academic fraternities and sororities (see fraternities and sororities)These practices are not limited to American schools. Swedish students undergo a similar bonding period, known as nollningen, in which all members of the entering class participate. · College and universities in general. · Associated groups, like fan clubs, school bands · Secret societies and even certain service clubs, or rather their local sections (such as some modern US Freemasons; not traditional masonic lodges) · Similarly various other competitive sports teams or clubs, even 'soft' and non-competitive ones (such as arts) · The armed forces — e.g., in the U.S., hard hazing practices from World War I boot camps were introduced into colleges. In Poland army hazing is called Polish fala "wave" adopted pre-World War I from non-Polish armies. In the Russian army (formerly the Red Army) hazing is called "Dedovshchina”. · Police forces (often with a paramilitary tradition) · Rescue services, such as lifeguards (also drilled for operations in military style) · In workplaces · Inmate hazing is also common at confinement facilities around the world, including frequent reports of beatings and sexual assaults by fellow inmates. Hazing is considered a felony in several US states, and anti hazing legislation has been proposed in other states. Strategies to cope with bullying Traditional Response While various strategies to deal with bullies have been put forth, conventional wisdom, anecdotal evidence, and common perception indicates that the only effective method that stops bullying is to respond in kind - to confront the violence of the bully with violence in return. This response, though it may not stop an attack, reduces the benefit of bullying the target individual. The basis of this concept is that the bullied is seen to be an "easy target" and that there are few, if any, consequences to harassing them. By removing the fundamental basis of the bully/target relationship, the bullying ends. This response is also very often the most effective means of stopping bullying, usually to only one. Helping victims at school Many of the responsibilities of members of a school team is that they need to help the victims of bullying. The following strategies may be considered: 1. Speak with the victim and ask them if they want to do anything about it, if they refuse take your own part and starting to investigating. 2. After investigating the situation, it may be that intervention is necessary with the bully or bullies. The situation needs to be addressed and hopefully a resolution to the problem can be found. 3. Inform the parents of the victim and of the bully. Discuss possible solutions with them. Arrange a meeting with them if possible. 4. Follow up in communicating with the victim, the parents and the teachers about the situation. 5. Monitor the behavior of the bully and the safety of the victim on a school-wide basis. 6. If the problem continues speak with the parents of the bully again and consider the idea of expulsion of the bully if problems continue, bullies normally attack not only one child but more of one, and normally 3 to 4 children are the attackers, find out EXACTLY who they are. 7. Finally you should decide for yourself the punishment, it depends on how they attacked the children, how many they have been attacking, since when have been a problem...etc. Strategies to reduce bullying within schools Researchers (Olweus, 1993; Craig & Peplar, 1999; Ross, 1998; Morrison, 2002; provide several strategies which address ways to help reduce bullying, these include: · make adults aware of the situation and involve them · make it clear that bullying is never acceptable · hold a school conference day devoted to bully/victim problems · increase adult supervision in the yard, halls and washrooms more vigilantly · emphasize caring, respect and safety · emphasize consequences of hurting others · enforce consistent and immediate consequences for aggressive behaviours · follow up on all instances of aggression · improve communication among school administrators, teachers, parents and students · have a school problem box where kids can report problems, concerns and offer suggestions · teach cooperative learning activities · help bullies with anger control and the development of empathy · encourage positive peer relations · offer a variety of extracurricular activities which appeal to a range of interests · teach your child to defend himself, verbally and physically, if necessary