???HUMAN SACRIFICE AMONG THE AZTECS???
After careful and systematic study of the sources, I find no sign of evidence of institutionalized mass human sacrifice among the Aztecs. The phenomenon to be studied, therefore, may be not these supposed sacrifices but the deeply rooted belief that they occurred. - Peter Hassler, ethnologist at the University of Zurich
???HUMAN SACRIFICE AMONG THE AZTECS???
Copyright World Press Review Dec 1992
An aura of lurid fascination surrounds our interest in the Aztecs, the people who, at the beginning of the 16th century, inhabited one of the largest cities of the world: Tenochtitlan. In 1521, this metropolis was erased from the face of the Earth by the Spanish conquerors under Hernando Cortes and his Indian allies. As a justification for their destructive acts, the conquistadors generated propaganda designed to offend the sensibilities of their Christian audience: They described the Aztec practice of human sacrifice. Later chronicles by Spanish writers, missionaries, and even Indian converts also told repeatedly of this cult. Even when scientists called these reports grossly exaggerated, the fact that the Aztecs sacrificed humans remained undisputed. Cutting out the victim's heart with an obsidian knife [fashioned from volcanic glass] was supposedly the most common method of sacrifice, although other forms were practiced as well. These included beheading, piercing with spears or arrows, and setting victims against each other in unequal duels. We are also told that some victims were literally skinned alive; a priest then donned this macabre "skin suit" to perform a ritual dance.
There has been no shortage of theories and explanations for what lay behind these archaic cults. Some researchers have deemed them religious rituals. Others have called them displays of repressed aggression and even a method of regulating population. Although human sacrifice has been the subject of much writing, there has been almost no critical examination of the sources of information about it. A critical review is urgently needed.
Bernal Diaz del Castillo is the classic source of information about mass sacrifice by the Aztecs. A literate soldier in Cortes' company, Diaz claimed to have witnessed such a ritual. "We looked over toward the Great Pyramids and watched as [the Aztecs] ... dragged [our comrades] up the steps and prepared to sacrifice them," he wrote in his Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva Espana (The True History of the Conquest of New Spain), published posthumously in 1632. "After they danced, they placed our comrades face up atop square, narrow stones erected for the sacrifices. Then, with obsidian knives, they sawed their breasts open, pulled out their still-beating hearts, and offered these to their idols."
The scene of these sacrificial rituals was the main temple in the island-city of Tenochtitlan. The observers, however, were watching from their camp on the shore of a lake three or four miles away. From that point, Diaz could have neither seen nor heard anything. To follow the action at the foot of the pyramid, he would have to have been inside the temple grounds. But this would have been impossible: The Aztecs had just beaten back the Spanish and their allies, who had been besieging the city from all sides.But Diaz is not the inventor of the legend of ritual murder. Cortes fathered the lie in 1522, when he wrote a shorter version of the tale to Emperor Charles V. He would have been confident that his reports would find ready ears, for in the 15th and 16th centuries many lies were being spread in Spain about ritual murders carried out by the Jews, who were being expelled from the Iberian peninsula along with the Moors. Cortes' lies were a tremendous success: They have endured for almost 500 years without challenge. Along with the lies of the conquistadors, there also have been secondhand reports--what could be called "hearsay evidence"--in the writings of Spanish missionaries and their Indian converts, who, in their new-found zeal, scorned their old religion. The accounts are filled with vague and banal phrases such as, "And thus they sacrificed," which indicates that the writers cannot have witnessed a real human sacrifice.
The only concrete evidence comes to us not from the Aztecs but from the Mayan civilization of the Yucatan. These depictions are found in the records of trials conducted during the Inquisition, between 1561 and 1565. These supposed testimonies about human sacrifice, however, were coerced from the Indians under torture and have been judged worthless as ethnographic evidence.
Along with the written accounts, many archeological finds--sculptures, frescoes, wall paintings, and pictographs--have been declared by the Spanish, their Indian converts, and later anthropologists to be connected to human sacrifice. Yet these images are in no way proof that humans were in fact sacrificed.
Until now, scientists have started from a position of believing the lies and hearsay reports and interpreting the archeological evidence accordingly. The circularity of such reasoning is obvious. There are plenty of possible interpretations of the images of hearts and even killings in these artifacts. They could depict myths or legends. They could present narrative images--allegories, symbols, and metaphors. They could even be images of ordinary executions or murders. Human bones that appear to have been cut also do not serve as evidence of human sacrifice. In tantric Buddhism, skulls and leg bones are used to make musical instruments used in religious rituals; this is in no way connected to human sacrifice.
Leslie J. Furst, a student of symbols used by the Aztecs, has seen depictions of magic where others have seen tales of human sacrifice. For example, one image shows the incarnation of a female god "beheaded" in the same way that a plant's blossom is removed in the ritual connected to the making of pulque, an alcoholic drink. Why scholars have interpreted images of self-beheadings and other things that depart from physical reality as evidence of human sacrifice will puzzle future generations.There is another important symbolic background for images of killing in Aztec artifacts: the initiation ceremony, whose central event is the mystical death. The candidate "dies" in order to be reborn. This "death" in imaginary or symbolic forms often takes on a dramatic shape in imagery--such as being chopped to pieces or swallowed by a monster. There has been no research into the symbolism of death in the high culture of the Indians of Mesoamerica, however, even though there were many reincarnation myths among these peoples.The ritual of "human skinning" surely belongs in this same category. In our depictions, we see the skin removed quickly from the victim, with a single cut along the spine, and coming off the body in a single piece. This is scarcely practicable. This "human skin suit" may be nothing but a metaphorical-symbolic representation, as indeed is appropriate for the image-rich Aztec language. And all of the heart and blood symbolism may be just a metaphor for one of the Aztecs' favorite drinks, made from cacao.
The heart is a symbolically important organ in more than just European cultures. In the Indian languages, as well, it is a symbol of courage and the soul. And "cutting the soul from the body," after all, is not a surgical operation. This may explain why no massive catacombs with what would have been the bones of sacrifice victims have ever been found in Mesoamerica.
From the liberal weekly "Die Zeit" of Hamburg. Peter Hassler, an ethnologist at the University of Zurich, is the author of "Human Sacrifice Among the Aztecs? A Critical Study," published recently in Switzerland.
More lies about Aztec Human Sacrifice. Go to my blog titled, "Lies About Aztec Human Sacrifice" and check out this website...
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Olympus/6581/aztec-sacrifice
.html
____________________________________________________________
___
Organization leaders, educators, students, researchers and enthusiast of our magnificent Indigenous/Chicano cultural & history, to help us with advice, suggestions, assistance and support.
500 NATIONS - THE MISSION – WINDWALKER – DANCES WITH WOLVES – GERONIMO – AMERICAN ME – BLOOD IN BLOOD OUT – MI VIDA LOCA - COLORES - MI FAMILIA - STAND AND DELIVER – ZAPATA, AMOR EN REBELDIA – DOS TIPOS DE CUIDADO - THE LAST SAMURAI
.. .. ..
We Will Rise , Rebuilding the Mexikah Nation
by Kurly Tlapoyawa; Tlapoyawa and Trafford Publishing -
The Mud People
by Patricia Gonzales; Chusma House Publications -
The Broken Spears , The Aztec Account of The Conquest of Mexico
by Miguel Leon-Portilla; Beacon Press -
Aztec Thought and Culture
by Miguel Leon-Portilla; University of Oklahoma Press -
The Devastation of the Indies , A Brief Account
by Bartolome De La Casas; The Johns Hopkins University Press -
Popol Vuh , The Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life
translated by Dennis Tedlock; Simon & Schuster Publishing -
Maya Cosmos , Three Thousand Years on The Shaman's Path
by David Freidel, Linda Schele, & Joy Parker; Quill Publishing -
Occupied America, A History of Chicanos
by Rodolfo Acuna; Pearson Longman Publishing -
Always Running, La Vida Loca: Gang Days In L.A.
by Luis J. Rodriguez; Chucha Press Publishing -
The First Americans, In Pursuit of Archaeology's Greatest Mystery
by J.M. Adovasio with Jake Page; Random House -
A Peoples History of the United States
by Howard Zinn; HarperCollins Publishers -
Lies My Teacher Told Me , Everything your American History Textbook Got Wrong
by James W. Loewen; Simon & Schuster Publishing -
Declarations of Independence , Cross-Examining American Iddeology
by Howard Zin; HarperCollins Publishings -
Rule by Secrecy
by Jim Marrs; HarperCollins Publishing -
The Unseen Hand , An Introduction to the Conspiratorial View of History
by A. Ralph Epperson; Publius Press
Lord Cuitlahuac - Ruled 1520
After the death of the Mexika (Aztec) emporor Motecozuma, his brother Cuitlahuac succeeded as the tenth emperor of Mexico Tenochtitlan (the great city of the Aztec) in June 1520. Some historians say that Motecozuma had been intimidated by Cortés because he believed the Spaniards were representatives of the bearded, fair- skinned god Quetzalcoatl. Cuitlahuac, who never believed the legend, set out to organize a determined resistance to the conquistadores. Though he only ruled four months before succumbing to smallpox, Cuitlahuac drove Cortés's men out of Tenochtitlan during the famous Noche Triste ("sad night") of either July 1 or 10, 1520 in which 400 conquistadors and thousands of their mesoamerican allies were killed. Cuitlahuac died October 1520 and was succeeded on the throne by his nephew Cuauhtémoc.
Lord Cuauhtémoc 1502 – February 28, 1525
Cuauhtémoc was the last great Mexika (Aztec) Tlatoani (Emperor) of Mexico Tenochtitlán. The name means "descending eagle", from Nahuatl cuauhtli (eagle which is the symbol for sun or sunlight) and temoc (descent); by extension it can be interpreted as "setting sun". Cuauhtémoc took power in 1520 as successor of Cuitláhuac and was a nephew of the emperor Moctezuma II, and his young wife was one of Moctezuma's daughters. He ascended to the throne when he was 18 years of age, as his city was being besieged by the Spanish and devastated by an epidemic of smallpox. On August 13, 1521, Cuauhtémoc was captured while crossing Lake Texcoco in an attempt to find reinforcements from the countryside to aid the falling Tenochtitlán. Cuauhtémoc was tortured by having his feet put to a fire, along with Tetlepanquetzal, the tlatoani of Tlacopán, and the Cihuacóatl (counselor) Tlacotzin, but even so they refused to divulge information about the treasures the Spanish coveted. It is said that during the torture, Tetlepanquetzal asked him to reveal the location of the treasures in order to stop the pain given to them, and Cuauhtémoc is quoted to say "Do you think I am in a bath or pleasure?". This would be popularized in the 19th century as "Do you think I am in a bed of roses?†In 28 February 1525, Cortés ordered Cuauhtémoc hanged along with Teltepanquetzaltzin.
Ricardo Flores Magon September 16, 1874 - November 21, 1922
Flores Magon attended Law School in 1893. But he did not become an attorney, instead he became a journalist with "El Demócrata", an opposition newspaper. In 1900, along with his brother Jesús, he founded "Regeneración", a very radical and antigovernment paper that ended him in jail. After he was released from jail in 1902, he joined another opposition newspaper, "El Hijo del Ahuizóte." He was arrested again and in 1904, he was forced to escape to San Antonio, Texas, where he started to publish "Regeneración" again with the help of his brother Enrique. The persecution continues and they fled to St. Louis, Missouri in 1905, and continue publishing their newspaper. In this city, they founded the Mexican Liberal Party in 1906. In January of 1911, they directed the uprising of Baja California, and seized the towns of Mexicali and Tijuana. Francisco I. Madero, leader of the revolutionary movement against the Porfirio DÃaz' dictatorship, attempted to bring the "Magonistas" to his side, but Ricardo Flores Magón, leader of the rebels, rejected him arguing that Madero was part of a "revolution of the rich."
A manifesto signed by Ricardo Flores Magón and Librado Rivera, addressed to all the anarchists of the world in 1918, was used by the North American government as an excuse to jail both. Librado was sentenced to 15 years in prison, while Ricardo Flores Magón was sentenced to 20 years. He was sent to the prison at McNeil Island, in the State of Washington. He got very ill and was moved to the federal prison of Leavenworth, Kansas, where he died in 1922.
Ricardo wrote two revolutionary plays: "Tierra y Libertad" ("Land and Freedom") and "Verdugos y VÃctimas" (Executioners and Victims), works of very intensive social criticism and impressive realism. He wrote many essays, fiction and reports.
General Emiliano Zapata Salazar August 8, 1879 – April 10, 1919
General Zapata was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, which broke out in 1910, and which was initially directed against the dictatorship of Porfirio DÃaz. He formed and commanded an important revolutionary force, the Liberation Army of the South. Zapata, who is considered one of Mexico’s greatest national heroes, was recognized as a leading figure of the largely indigenous Nahua community of Anenecuilco. Being a Mestizo and able to speak the indigenous language Nahuatl, he quickly became involved in the struggle for the rights of the Indians of Morelos. Zapata was partly influenced by an anarchist from Oaxaca, Mexico named Ricardo Flores Magón. The influence of Flores Magón on Zapata can be seen in the Zapatistas' Plan de Ayala, but even more noticeably in their slogan "Tierra y libertad" or "land and liberty", the title and maxim of Flores Magón's most famous work. With this cry, "Tierra y Libert", Zapata continued his fight against rich land owners who had stolen lands from peasants farmers. On April 10, 1919, Zapata was tricked into a meeting with one of Carranza's generals who wanted to "switch sides." The meeting was a trap, and Zapata was killed as he arrived at the meeting.
Cesar Estrada Chavez March 31, 1927 - April 23, 1993
Cesar Chavez was a Mexican American labor leader, civil rights activist and co-founded the United Farm Workers. He is hailed as one of the greatest Mexican American civil rights leaders. From the 1950s to the 1980s Chavez led many peaceful strikes, boycotts, and walks in protest of the oppression and unfair treatment of migrant farm workers. In 1968, Chavez began a fast to call attention to the migrant workers' cause. Although his dramatic act did little to solve the immediate problems, in the long run, it increased public awareness of the insensitive, adverse, and unfair working conditions that his people had to endure. On December, 6, 2006 Cesar Chavez becomes the second of 13 leaders and legends, after President Ronald Reagan, inducted into the first-ever California Hall of Fame.
Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales 1929-2005
Gonzalez was a Chicano political and civil rights iconic leader in the movement for justice and equality for Mexican-Americans in the Southwest and he is credited with raising the nation's awareness of the plight of urban Chicanos.
In the mid-1960"s he founded an urban civil rights and cultural movement called the Crusade for Justice which advocated Chicano nationalism. During the late sixties and early seventies, he organized walkouts, demonstrations against police brutality and marches against the Vietnam War.
In 1968, Gonzales led a Chicano contingent to the Poor People's March on Washington D.C and issued a "plan of the Barrio" which demanded better housing, education and restitution of pueblo lands. Gonzales was also an organizer of the Annual Chicano Youth Liberation Conference which sought to create unity among Chicano youth.
Gonzales also advocated for increased political representation for Chicanos. In 1972 he was the keynote speaker at the newly formed La Raza Unida Party national convention in El Paso Texas. The party fielded political candidates to run for office in the state.
But perhaps Corky Gonzales is best known for his poem "I am Joaquin/Yo Soy Joaquin." He wrote the epic poem in 1965 and it is one of the most important literary works to emerge from the Chicano movement.