Sweden #1

SlideStruggle for power The Swedish Middle Ages was, from a political point of view, rather turbulent. Struggle for power amongst powerful families and Great Men (Stormännen) caused politically unstable situations. Sweden was a kingdom where the king was elected by members of a council of aristocrats, i.e. the throne was not inherited.The presence of powerful Great Men and chiefs meant that the king's influence was often quite limited. His political and fiscal control over the country depended upon support from the aristocracy. The situation was even more complicated when, in 1397, Sweden, Norway and Denmark formed the Kalmar Union, mainly to try to counterbalance the increasing political and economic influence of the German Hanseatic League. The countries in the union agreed to elect a common king from Denmark. This later led to serious antagonism between Sweden and Denmark, initiating a bilateral struggle for power.During the late Middle Ages there is cause to talk about political anarchy in Sweden. Constant struggle for power between a number of families and the Danish King Kristian II ended in "The Bloodbath of Stockholm" in 1520. The result of this struggle enabled Gustav Vasa to become king in 1521. Autocracy As king, Gustav Vasa started to transform Sweden into an autocratic nation- state. At that time this meant strong central authority led by an absolute monarch. Gustav Vasa made the tax-system much more efficient than it had been before. Earlier a number of farms or a village formed a tax unit; from now on every single farm was a unit. All farms, and how much each farm had to pay was precisely written down. The king had sheriffs who ensured that everyone paid their taxes. This meant heavily increased taxes for most farmers and caused rebellions in some parts of the country. The king handled the rebellions successfully (most rebels were killed). This strengthened his authority even more.From catholicism to protestantism Priest The most important reform Gustav Vasa made was the reformation of the Church. In order for the king to gain political control and control over the property of the Church, all Swedes suddenly became Protestants instead of Catholics. This made it possible for the king to establish himself, not the Pope, as head of the Church, and also to use the Church as a pedagogic tool on the people. Because everyone had to attend church on Sundays, the state could reach almost the entire people with information, propaganda and also a certain amount of education.The Bible was, for instance, translated from Latin to Swedish. This had a positive impact on literacy among the ordinary people. Negative consequences following the Reformation were the total breakdown of the health-care and education system. This was an effect of the closing of the abbeys, which were mainly responsible for such activities before the Reformation. The Reformation also meant that almost all connections with the Continent were cut off. This led to cultural isolation from the rest of Europe.King Gustav Vasa is known for his correspondence with his subordinates. He personally wrote letters even to common farmers, telling them how to do things and solve problems. Some hundred years later in history when a quite romanticised picture of the king was drawn, this was used as an example of his greatness and one of the facts that, for many generations of Swedes, made him a beloved monarch. The people who received critical letters from King Gustav Vasa probably did not think of him as a "beloved monarch". Most people were presumably terrified.Parliamentarism After the downfall of the Swedish Great Power in 1718, the monarchy's influence diminished. All power was in the hands of the Council of Aristocrats. They were depending on the support of the Parliament for the execution of power.In 1772 the new king, Gustav III, began a reform that strengthened the power of the king. This developed into an almost absolute monarchy. Gustav III is best known for his engagement in art, theatre and literature. He instituted the Swedish Academy in 1786. Today, the academy is responsible for the Nobel Prize in Literature. In 1792 he was murdered, shot, during a fancy dress ball. He was succeeded by king Gustav IV Adolf who was dethroned after losing Finland to the Russians in a war, 1808-09.After the war, the Parliament passed a new constitution in 1809. In this constitution the power was divided between the king, the parliament and the courts. This constitution did not change until 1974.In 1818 the first Bernadotte became King of Sweden. Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's field marshals, was chosen to succeed king Karl XIII. As crown prince he waged war against Napoleon, with the support of Russia. This led to an attack on Denmark which was forced to give up Norway to Sweden. This was the beginning of the union between Norway and Sweden, which lasted from 1814 to 1905. Reformation towards democratisation During the 19th century a number of liberal reforms took place. In 1842, the Elementary Education Act gain legal force. A liberal opposition demanded that the Diet of the Four Estates should be abolished. In 1865 the Diet of the Four Estates was replaced with a two-chamber parliament. Also, during the 19th century a limited freedom of religion was allowed and the women's rights were improved. For instance, women were allowed to graduate from upper secondary school in 1870. The right to vote The parliamentary system began to take form in 1865 when the Diet of the Four Estates was abolished and replaced with the two-chamber parliament. The right to vote was restricted, being based on privileges. Only powerful groups in society had the right to vote. In 1907 another reform was passed that meant universal suffrage. But there were still restrictions for some, depending on their social status. In 1907 the second chamber election was won by the Social Democrats. They wanted to speed up the democratisation process. The Social Democrats and the Liberals, who agreed on this matter, finally formed a government and started the reform work. In the elections of 1921 the new reformed constitution allowed men and women to vote in free elections for the first time.The constitution of 1809 was replaced in 1974 when a one-chamber parliament was introduced. It was a modern constitution where, for instance, the role of the monarch was made constitutional. Popular movements During the 19th century, the increasing literacy level and better communication made people with common interests to come together and form organisations. The great popular movement during the 19th century was the revivalist movement.Close to the revivalist movement was the temperance movement. This was a reaction to the uncontrolled drinking during periods of the 19th century. For example, sometimes workers got part of their wages in alcohol. The popular movements made quite an impact on Swedish society. It increased the standard of education and gave large groups experience in meetings and negotiations, which was valuable training in democracy. During the 20th century, Sweden developed into a modern welfare state. This was made possible by a favourable political and economic development in the Nordic countries. From the late 19th century, the Nordic countries developed from agrarian societies to fully industrialised societies. Parallel with economic development, democratic institutions and parlamentarism were introduced.In 1865, the Diet of the Four Estates was abolished and replaced with the two- chamber parliament. The election to the second chamber took place through universal elections. At this time, only members of a certain economic elite had the right to vote. This, of course, created discontent, mainly among liberal and social democratic groups. Among the conservatives were groups who strongly opposed a democratisation, but there were also more pragmatic and realistic groups who realised that democratic reforms were necessary.The introduction of parlamentarism took place during the first decade of the 20th century in Sweden. In 1907 a voting reform was signed and the universal right to vote gain legal force, but only for men. The reform was however a compromise and only the beginning of democratisation. The three important political groupings at this time were the Social Democrats, the Liberals and the Conservatives.The discrepancy in the political development in the Nordic countries, with Norway as democratic forerunner, put political strain on the union between the Sweden and Norway. The situation became quite serious before the dissolution of the union in 1905.During the period from 1900 to the outbreak of World War I, parlamentarism had become praxis in Sweden. Earlier, the king decided who was going to form the government after an election. Now, he usually accepted the choice of the parliament. World War I In 1914 war broke out. Sweden declared itself neutral. However, important groups in society, for instance many officers and public servants, sympathized with Germany and the Swedish Social Democratic Party had a good relationship with its German counterpart. This situation changed during the war and Liberals and Social Democrats began to sympathize with England. Officially all parties in the parliament supported the neutrality policy and the political differences were put aside for most of the war. Sweden remained neutral throughout the war.During the first years of the war, Sweden exported large quantities of food to Germany. But at the same time import was made more difficult because of blockades upheld by the belligerents. This caused maintenance problems. In 1917 the harvest failed which, in combination with the decline of import, almost caused a famine. This, however, was avoided thanks to an agreement with the Allies, which allowed Sweden to import food and supplies.The Russian Revolution in 1917 shook Sweden as much as it did the rest of Europe. The war and hard times constituted a fertile breeding-ground for the Communists. As it had in Russia, communist propaganda had spread among the soldiers at war in some regiments. In Sweden, however, this did not lead to revolution. A fraction of the left wing of the Social Democratic Party formed what was later to become the Swedish Communist Party.The election to the second chamber in 1917 was won by the Social Democrats and the Liberals. They wanted to speed up the democratisation of the parliamentarian system. The king was still reluctant and tried to slow down the process by appointing prime ministers who formed governments that were opposed to reforms. These governments were, of course, weak and lacked support. This finally led to the formation of a Liberal/Social Democratic government. The new Government soon decided to implement a constitutional reform, towards universal suffrage. Women were finally allowed to vote for the first time in the elections of 1921. Between the wars During the first years of the twenties, Sweden, like the rest of Europe was seriously affected by the Depression. The latter part of the decade was characterised by an economic boom. In spite of these economic fluctuations, the industrialisation and modernisation of Swedish society continued. Industrial production rose more and more, thanks to rationalisations and the use of modern techniques. During the period 1925-29, the industrial production rose by 35 %. Urbanisation continued and the cities and their populations grew. The number of people that worked with farming, on the other hand, diminished.The Depression and the difficult economic situation resulted in nine governments in 13 years between 1920-33. In the election of 1921 the Conservatives were supported by approximately 25% of the vote. They concentrated on questions concerning the economy and defence. They also warned people about the Social Democrats, using the situation in Russia as an example. The Liberals and the agrarian parties fared poorly in the election. The Social Democrats, on the other hand, received 36% of the vote. Their leader, Hjalmar Branding, was a supporter of the League of Nations and believed in its capability to solve international crises. This led to a decision in 1925 to extensively reduce Swedish military expenditure. Another important question for the Social Democrats was the education system. This was believed to be fundamental in order to combat class differences. Also during this period, the unions grew stronger and became an important power factor in society.Now the "Swedish model" was introduced. In 1932, the Social Democrats, because of the high unemployment-rate, formed a new policy. The unemployed should be provided with meaningful jobs by the State. This would vitalise the economy and create new jobs, all in the spirit of Meynard Keynes. This, of course, meant heavily increased taxes. The support of the Agrarian party made it possible for the Social Democrats to conduct a long term economic policy without too much compromising in Parliament. A number of social reforms were introduced in the mid-thirties. An important part of the Swedish model, the agreement at Saltsjöbaden, meant that the Confederation of Trade Unions (LO) and the organisations of the employers, solved their differences between themselves. This reduced the risk of conflicts and strikes, which earlier had been common. World War II When World War II broke out in 1939, Sweden's defence was in poor condition, mainly because of the reduction in the forces in 1925. This led to a need for immediate rearmament. This rearmament continued right throughout the war. The main question for Sweden was how to stay neutral. When Denmark and Norway were occupied by the Germans, many thought that Sweden had no possibility to stay out of the war. A coalition government with all parties represented in the parliament, except for the Communists, was formed.Sweden was never attacked by Germany. This was probably due to the fact that Germany did not have to. Germany was dependent upon Swedish metal ore from the mines in northern Sweden. Throughout the entire war, the Germans had no trouble in getting this metal ore. Sweden also exported ball bearings to the Germans, vital for their production of tanks and aeroplanes. German troops were transported to Norway and Finland on the Swedish railroad system during the war. After the German set-back at Stalingrad the Swedish policy towards Germany changed. The troop transports, for instance, were stopped. After the war this compliance to the Germans has been discussed and criticised. At the time, however, it was considered necessary in order to avoid confrontation with Germany.There were, however, Swedes who took part in the war. When Finland was attacked by Russia in 1939, several thousand Swedes took part in the defence of Finland as volunteers. Sweden also supported the Finns with war material. The most famous Swede who played an active roll during the war was, without question, Raoul Wallenberg, who saved the lives of thousands of Jews in Hungary towards the end of the war. After World War II When the war was over Sweden was in a very favourable situation. Industry was intact and ready to start manufacturing products that the devastated Europe desperately needed. This caused an economic boom in Sweden; a boom that made the rapid development of the Swedish welfare-state during the fifties and sixties possible.The dominating force in Swedish politics during this time was the Social Democratic party. The Social Democrats wanted to increase the size of the public sector. In the fifties, they formed a coalition with the Agrarian party. The social democratic policy towards to a welfare system mainly financed by taxes, led to a steady increase in taxation. This policy was strongly opposed by the Conservatives. The most infected political controversy during the late fifties was the fight over the national supplementary pensions scheme. This fight was won by the Social Democrats and the Confederation of Trade Unions who were in favour of the new pension system. The victory in the pension fight enabled the Social Democrats to continue their expansionist politics regarding the public sector. The social reform policy continued.In the beginning of the 70s the growth in the Swedish economy was gradually reduced. The situation worsened because of the worsening economic situation in Europe and the United States. The demand for Swedish products on the international market diminished. The steel and shipping industries are examples of branches that received massive economic help from the Swedish State. In 1974 the Social Democratic Government began to borrow money to sustain private and public consumption. This policy was continued by the Conservative/Liberal Government that came to power in 1976. In the beginning of the 80s, Sweden borrowed more money and imported more than the country earned and exported. This was the beginning of the financial problems that Sweden suffers from even today. The neutrality policy During World War I and II, Sweden managed to keep its neutrality. This was a combination of political will and pure luck. After World War II, in light of the Cold War, the question whether Sweden should remain neutral or join NATO was raised. Before that, in 1948-1949, there had been some discussions about creating a Nordic defence alliance. This failed when Norway and Denmark joined NATO. A Swedish membership in NATO was particularly advocated by some liberals.Among the political parties in Sweden a consensus regarding whether the country should remain neutral if war broke out, soon developed. The doctrine was a de facto doctrine, not a de jure. This meant that Sweden was free to form its neutrality policy after its own choice. This in comparison with, for example, Austria which has neutrality written into its constitution. The purpose of the doctrine was to keep Sweden out of any alliance in peacetime, thus enabling neutrality in a war situation. Compulsory military service In Sweden, since 1901, every man between the ages of 18 and 47 is ,by law, compelled to do compulsory military service. At the age of 18 you are called to a conscription where it is decided if you are fit for military service. Then it is decided which branch you are going to join: the army, the airforce or the navy. At the age of 20 you are drafted and the basic training lasts between 7.5 and 15 months, depending upon your suitability. After the basic training you are regularly called to military refresher courses.