Polska

Poland was first unified as a nation in the 11th century. It subsequently was divided into principalities again, and reunified in the 14th century.The country reached the height of its grandeur in the 16th century, when it was one of the most important powers in Europe, with territories stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea.When the Jagiellonian dynasty came to an end, the Poles took the unique step of introducing an elected monarchy of kings chosen from the royal families of Europe. They also introduced a parliamentary voting system called the liberum veto, by which any member of parliament could veto a law with a single vote.In the 17th century Poland came under attack from all sides; it was invaded by the Swedes, fought with the Turks, and there was a Cossack rebellion in the southeastern territories. The country's power was whittled away until at the end of the 18th century Russia, Austria and Prussia together divided Poland up in a series of three partitions.Throughout the 19th century Poland continued to be occupied, despite two uprisings in i830 and 1863. Independence finally came with the end of World War I.A 20-year period of social and political troubles were abruptly interrupted by the German invasion and the outbreak of World War II. Poland suffered terribly under the occupation, though Poles offered heroic resistance.The communists seized power immediately after the war. There followed a harsh Stalinist period of repressions; from the late 50s on things were a little easier, though Poland continued to suffer from the dual burden of political oppression and economic hardship.In 1980-81, the latest in a series of popular protests led to concessions that included the establishment of Solidarnosc (Solidarity), the Communist bloc's first independent trade union. These freedoms were taken away when martial law was declared, but the precedent had been set. The opposition continued, legally and illegally, to chip away at the monolith of communism, and in the late 1980s and early 1990s the seemingly impossible came to pass: the Communist party was disbanded and democratic elections were held.The country is completing its conversion to a free market economy.